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Manual  for  School 
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A  Manual 

For  Use  of  Superintendents, 

Principals  and  School 

Officials 

by 
FREDERICK  A.  WELCH 

STATE   INSPECTOR  GRADED  AND 
HIGH  SCHOOLS 

Des  Moines,  Iowa 


•8? 


W.  M.  WELCH  MANUFACTURING  COMPANY 

1516  Orleans  Street 

Chicago,  111. 


Copyright  1922, 

W.  M.  Welch  Manufacturing  Company, 
Chicago,  111. 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS       III 


PREFACE 

This  book  is  not  a  philosophical  treatise  on  the  Ameri- 
can School  System.  Such  books  have  a  valuable  place 
in  our  educational  literature,  and  a  number  of  excellent 
books  of  this  nature  have  recently  been  written.  Some 
especially  valuable  books,  also,  have  been  written  on  "The 
American  High  School",  showing  its  purpose,  place,  etc. 
I  can  here  do  no  better  service  to  the  readers  of  this 
handbook  than  to  urge  upon  them  the  use  of  one  or  more 
of  these  more  pretentious  volumes. 

Nor  is  this  a  book  of  methods.  This  field  is  well 
covered  already,  and  by  authors  far  better  able  to  write 
on  such  a  theme.  An  aspiring  superintendent  or  principal 
will  familiarize  himself  with  such  valuable  school  litera- 
ture. He  cannot  best  gauge  his  own  work  nor  best  assist 
his  teachers  without  some  knowledge  of  methods  of 
teaching. 

The  present  volume  pretends  to  be  no  more  than  its 
title  indicates,  a  manual  for  frequent  use.  As  such,  how- 
ever, it  is  alone  in  its  field.  It  has  grown  out  of  the 
experiences  and  observations  of  the  author  during  twenty 
years  as  superintendent  of  village  and  city  schools  in 
communities  ranging  in  population  from  three  hundred  to 
twelve  thousand,  and  during  four  years  as  state  inspector 
of  village  and  city  schools.  These  experiences  and  obser- 
vations have  been  supplemented  by  frequent  conferences 
with  successful  superintendents  in  various  sized  schools, 
r.nd  by  talks  with  many  members  of  boards  of  education. 

The  preparation  of  this  volume  has  been  prompted 
by  the  testimony  of  many  principals  and  superintendents 
that  they  have  no  way  of  knowing  what  other  schools  are 
doing,  and  therefore  no  way  of  gauging  the  success  of 
their  work.  497580 


IV       MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

While  a  few  universities  and  fewer  colleges  now  offer 
some  work  in  "School  Supervision",  there  are  not  yet 
adequate  means  for  the  prospective  principal  or  super- 
intendent to  secure  training  for  his  profession.  His  teach- 
ers may  be  well  trained  for  their  tasks,  but  he  must  yet 
depend  mostly  on  "the  school  of  experience",  which  is  a 
long-term  school.  This  book  is  intended  to  assist  such 
principals  and  superintendents,  and  it  is  believed  that  it 
will  also  be  of  decided  help  to  those  who  are  experienced. 
Here,  too,  members  of  boards  of  education  will  be  enabled 
in  brief  space  to  find  just  the  information  they  need  to 
understand  their  problems  and  to  familiarize  themselves 
with  the  workings  of  the  present  school  system. 

While  not  all  users  of  this  book  will  agree  with  the 
author  in  every  opinion  expressed  herein,  it  is  the  author's 
desire  and  belief  that  the  book  will  constitute  a  safe  work- 
ing basis,  and  that  it  will  prove  suggestive  of  more  and 
better  ideas  lying  perhaps  dormant  in  the  minds  of  prin- 
cipals, superintendents  and  school  officials  who  read  its 
pages.  It  is  intended  not  only  as  a  book  to  be  once  read, 
but  as  a  handbook  to  be  kept  ready  at  hand  to  assist  in 
solving  the  various  problems  frequently  arising,  which 
the  possible  limited  experience  of  the  user  cannot  assist 
in  solving.  Because  the  author  in  his  early  experience 
in  superintending  and  supervising  his  school  longed  for 
just  such  assistance  but  could  not  get  it,  he  has  faith 
that  other  young  men  and  young  women  in  the  work 
today  will  welcome  such  help.  If  even  one  earnest  and 
ambitious  young  person  is  helped  thereby,  the  author 
will  feel  repaid  for  the  effort  in  preparing  the  volume. 

In  preparation  of  this  volume  the  author  is  especially 
indebted  for  valuable  suggestions  to  his  chief  in  the  office, 
and  to  his  fellow  workers  in  the  Department.  He  is  also 
indebted  to  numerous  experienced  superintendents  in  the 
field  and  to  other  educators  with  whom  he  has  from  time 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS         V 

to  time  discussed  the  problems  here  treated.  Especially 
does  the  author  feel  indebted  to  Dr.  J.  E.  Stout  of  North- 
western University  for  valuable  suggestions,  and  to  Dr. 
C.  P.  Colegrove  of  Pasadena,  California,  educator,  author 
and  lecturer,  for  examination  of  the  manuscript. 

— F.  A.  W. 


VI        MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

INTRODUCTION    1 

CHAPTER  1— Historical  Development  of  Our  Public 
Schools.  Nature  of  Our  System — Colonial  Schools 
—High  Schools — Plans  of  Organization 4 

CHAPTER  2— School  Officials  and  Their  Functions. 
Board  of  Education — The  Superintendent — Ward 
Principals — The  High  School  Principal — General 
Considerations — A  Question  of  Relationships 8 

CHAPTER  3 — Employment  and  Assignment  of 
Teachers  and  Other  Employes.  Employing  a 
Superintendent — Selection  of  Principals — Selection 
and  Assignment  of  Teachers — The  Special  Teacher, 
or  Supervisor — The  Choice  and  Function  of  a 
Janitor  17 

CHAPTER  4— Material  Equipment.  The  School 
Site — Grounds — Buildings — Methods  of  Heating — 
Methods  of  Ventilation — Shops  and  Laboratories — 
Library — Other  Equipment — School  Furniture — 
Working  Material  33 

CHAPTER  5— Building  a  Course  of  Study.  Purpose 
of  a  Definite  Course — Who  is  Responsible  for  the 
Course  of  Study — The  Course  of  Study  a  Tradi- 
tion— The  Grade  Course — Primary  Department- 
Intermediate  Department — Grammar  Department — 
The  High  School  Course — Suggested  Courses  of 
Study  47 

CHAPTER  6— Organization  of  the  School.  Relative 
Importance  of  Grades — Departments — The  Kinder- 
garten— The  Primary  Department — The  Inter^ 
mediate  Department — The  Grammar  Department— 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS      VII 

TABLE  OF  CONTENTS— Continued 

General  Suggestions  on  the  Elementary  Work — 
Organization  of  the  High  School — General  Sugges- 
tions on  the  High  School  Work 61 

CHAPTER  7— Class-Room    Organization.      Scope- 
Seating  of  Pupils — Organization  of  Pupils'  Work — 
The  Schedule — The  Recitation — Blackboard  Work 
— Method   of  Questioning — Assignment  of   Lesson 
—The  Matter  of  Discipline 73 

CHAPTER  8— Administration  of  the  School.  Types 
of  Teachers  Needed — General  Notes  on  Adminis- 
tration —  Administrative  Offices  —  Supervision  of 
Teachers'  Work  —  Non-teaching  Duties  —  Text 
Books— Health— Punctuality 85 

CHAPTER  9— The  Problem  of  Supervision.  The 
Measure  of  Efficiency — Method  of  Supervision- 
Points  to  Observe  in  Classroom  Supervision — How 
to  Assist  the  Teacher— Punishments 92 

CHAPTER  10— Organizations  in  the  School,  and  So- 
cial Center  Activities.  Superintendent  Organiza- 
tions— Faculty  Representative — Social  Center  Ac- 
tivities— The  Superintendent  and  the  Community— 
The  School  as  a  Community  Center 99 

CHAPTER  11— Putting  Over  a  Building  Campaign. 
General  Statement — Preparing  the  Way — Method 
of  Procedure — Choosing  an  Architect — The  Cam- 
paign— After  the  Battle : 103 

CHAPTER  12— The  Teacher  and  Her  Work.  Im- 
portance of  the  Teacher — Attitude — Preparation — 
Special  Training — A  Fallacy — Factors  of  Success 
— Attitude  Toward  School  Officials  and  the  Com- 
munity—A Noble  Calling 108 


VIII    MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

TABLE  OF  CONTENTS— Continued 

CHAPTER  13— The  Board  of  Education.  Who  May 
Be  Members — Shall  "Board"  Members  Be  Com- 
pensated for  Service?  —  Organization  of  the 
"Board" — Legal  Advice — Suggested  Co-operative 
Plan — Status  and  Tenure  of  a  Superintendent — The 
School  Year — Financial  Limitations — Suggestions 
for  Providing  and  Care  of  Equipment — Problems 
to  Consider — Recognition  of  Service 116 

CHAPTER  14 — General  Consideration.  Tenure  of 
Office — Shall  a  Superintendent  Instruct,  and  in 
What  Branches?— Oral  Work  vs.  Written  Work- 
Methods  of  Promotion — The  Place  of  Special  Tests 
—School  Surveys — What  a  Superintendent  Should 
Know  About  His  School  and  Community — Home 
Study — Financial  Plan  131 

CHAPTER  15— A  Forward  Look.  Retrospect— De- 
veloping a  System — The  Evolution  of  the  "Super- 
intendent"— Importance  of  the  Superintendency— 
Needs  of  Training — The  Prospect — The  New  Or- 
ganization— Community  Leadership — Community 
Participation  in  Education 139 


MANUAL  FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS    1 

INTRODUCTION 

A  century  ago  nearly  90%  of  the  population  of  the 
United  States  lived  in  the  country  and  subsisted  by  agri- 
culture. Cities  were  few,  communities  were  isolated, 
commerce  restricted,  organizations  simple,  and  nearly 
all  the  arts  and  vocations  of  the  times  had  their  center 
in  the  home.  The  schools  of  the  period  grew  out  of  the 
needs  and  conditions  of  a  pioneer  people.  These  schools 
were  crude  in  organization,  local  in  management,  un- 
graded, short-termed,  with  a  three  R's  course,  taught 
by  men,  and  wholly  unsupervised  by  the  state. 

With  the  marvelous  era  of  expansion  and  invention, 
the  industrial  revolution,  the  rapid  growth  of  cities, 
the  passing  of  the  home  as  the  industrial  center,  and  the 
increasing  complexity  of  our  social  organization,  the 
functions  of  the  school  were  greatly  increased  and  en- 
larged. Gradually  the  school  has  been  transformed  into 
a  great  state  and  national  institution,  with  a  vast  capital 
invested  in  buildings  and  equipment,  with  elaborate 
courses  of  study  covering  twelve  years,  with  a  nine 
months'  program  of  study  each  year,  with  a  scientific 
method  of  instruction,  and  a  vast  army  of  twenty  million 
pupils  taught  by  650,000  teachers — in  short,  the  biggest 
and  most  important  business  in  our  republic.  The  direc- 
tion and  management  of  this  immense  business  have  been 
delegated  to  school  boards,  superintendents  and  prin- 
cipals. 

To  be  even  reasonably  successful  a  great  business 
enterprise  requires  definite  objectives,  scientific  manage- 
ment and  wise  supervision.  No  one  is  capable  of  such 
intelligent  direction  and  administration  of  a  great  school 
plant  unless  he  has  been  adequately  trained  for  such 
service.  This  training  may  be  acquired  in  two  ways : 


2         .MANUAL  FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

(1)  by  actual  experience;  (2)  by  careful  study,  observa- 
tion and  scientific  investigation. 

From  the  nature  of  the  case  the  "experience"  method 
was  the  only  one  possible  at  first.  While  our  great  city 
school  systems,  our  universities,  our  normal  colleges,  our 
rural  consolidated  schools  were  growing  up  they  had 
to  be  administered  by  men  in  service  who  grew  up  with 
them.  Such  men  were  Horace  Mann,  W.  T.  Harris, 
Philbrick,  Angel,  Eliot,  Harper  and  Seerley.  They 
studied  their  problems  while  the  problems  were  in  the 
making,  experimented,  proved  all  things,  held  fast  to  the 
useful  and  grew  into  giant  stature  by  meeting  according 
to  their  best  judgment  the  increasingly  complex  duties 
demanded  by  the  expanding  institutions  under  their 
management.  These  men,  with  scores  of  other  school 
administrators  of  long  service,  have  established  many 
important  principles  of  supervision,  tried  out  many 
methods  of  organization,  determined  many  definite  edu- 
cational facts,  tested  many  fascinating  theories.  They 
have,  in  fact,  created  a  science  of  school  administration 
and  supervision. 

Now  the  management  of  great  school  systems  and 
educational  institutions  must  be  given  over  to  young 
men  who  have  had  little  actual  experience  in  school 
administration.  Unless  such  men  have  carefully  studied 
the  ideals,  the  philosophy  and  the  history  of  our  great 
pioneers  in  educational  practice,  they  stand  helpless  and 
bewildered  before  the  difficult  problems  that  demand  a 
solution.  Such  a  superintendent  or  principal,  powerless 
to  direct,  with  no  definite  policy,  weak  in  purpose,  erratic 
in  method,  is  a  pitiful  figure — an  educational  tragedy. 

To  aid  the  young  superintendent  and  principal  in  his 
duties  this  volume  has  been  written.  The  author  has 
gathered  his  material  from  a  long  experience  as  an  ad- 
ministrator of  schools,  a  close  study  of  educational 


MANUAL   FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS          3 

reports  and  several  years  of  field  service  as  a  state 
inspector  of  graded  and  high  schools,  where  he  has  met 
school  officials,  face  to  face,  to  talk  over  the  betterment 
of  their  local  educational  conditions.  From  all  these 
sources  a  large  body  of  vital  and  approved  principles, 
directions  and  suggestions  have  been  selected  and  put 
into  usable  form.  They  are  presented  in  clear,  concise 
and  definite  language.  They  are  not  mere  theory  and 
guesswork,  but  are  intensely  practical  and  useful.  The 
careful  study  of  these  principles  and  directions  on  the 
part  of  superintendents  and  principals  of  schools  cannot 
fail  to  prove  of  immense  value  to  the  pupils,  the  teachers 
and  the  communities  that  they  serve. 

Not  only  to  the  superintendents  and  principals  will 
this  manual  be  of  service,  but  to  the  members  of  boards 
of  education  as  well — that  great  body  of  public  spirited 
citizens  serving  without  compensation  in  the  field  of 
public  school  education.  Here,  in  concise  form,  may  be 
found  a  workable  basis  for  guidance  of  school  officials. 
Best  methods  are  presented  for  solving  the  various  prob- 
lems to  be  considered  by  these  men  and  women  trusted 
with  local  management  of  schools.  Such  persons  are 
naturally  busy  with  their  own  business,  social  and  per- 
sonal problems,  and  cannot  give  intensive  study  nor  ex- 
tended time  to  familiarize  themselves  with  various  school 
problems.  This  manual,  in  brief  space,  will  lay  before 
them  the  general  field  of  operation  and  will  give  sound 
advice  on  questions  of  local  management  of  schools. 
School  officials,  thus,  as  well  as  superintendents  and 
principals,  should  welcome  such  a  volume  presented  in 
this  brief  and  concise  way. 

C.  P.  COLEGROVE, 

Pasadena,  California. 


4          MANUAL   FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

CHAPTER  I 

Historical   Development   of   Our 
Public   Schools 

Nature  of  Our  System.  The  public  school  system  of 
the  United  States  is  unique,  both  in  the  nature  of  develop- 
ment and  in  its  method  of  government.  We  have  no 
national  or  federal  system  of  schools,  as  do  most  other 
countries.  Instead,  we  have  a  separate  system  in  each 
state,  the  forty-eight  state  systems  resembling  each  other 
somewhat  closely.  The  public  schools  are  financed  by 
state  and  local  funds,  in  many  states  mostly  by  the  latter. 
However,  a  few  states,  among  them  Texas  and  California, 
have  such  a  large  state  fund  for  public  school  maintenance 
that  local  taxation  for  the  purpose  is  extremely  low  in 
rate.  With  the  exception  of  some  early  national  land 
grants  for  public  schools  and  the  bonus  to  states  for  voca- 
tional instruction  under  the  recent  Smith-Hughes  Act, 
our  federal  government  has  no  share  in  financing  our 
public  schools. 

The  general  government,  however,  has  been  generous 
in  assisting  higher  education  in  the  states,  especially 
agricultural  colleges.  The  present  tendency  is  to  extend 
similar  aid  to  the  secondary  part  of  our  public  schools 
and  at  the  same  time  to  exercise  some  slight  control  over 
the  work  of  the  schools.  In  other  words,  the  present 
tendency  is  toward  more  centralization  in  public  school 
education.  No  doubt,  however,  our  schools  will  continue 
to  remain  largely  under  state  and  local  control. 

Colonial  Schools.  In  our  early  history,  strange  as  it 
may  seem,  the  colonies  established  colleges  and  univer- 
sities before  they  gave  attention  to  either  secondary 
schools  or  elementary  schools.  The  colleges  were  needed 
to  develop  ministers  for  the  church  and  political  leaders 


MANUAL   FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS          5 

for  village  and  state.  As  early  as  1636  Harvard  Univer- 
sity was  established  in  Massachusetts,  by  General  Court. 
Virginia,  by  statutory  enactment,  established  William 
and  Mary's  College  as  its  first  public  educational  institu- 
tion in  1692. 

The  General  Court  of  Massachusetts  in  1647  decreed 
that  every  township  inhabited  by  fifty  householders 
should  appoint  some  one  of  its  number  to  teach.  This 
was  probably  the  first  legislation  for  elementary  public 
schools  in  America.  The  act  of  the  General  Court  also 
required  that  in  every  township  of  one  hundred  house- 
holders a  Grammar  School  should  be  established  to  pre- 
pare students  for  college.  This  was  also  probably  the 
first  legislation  in  America  for  a  public  secondary  school. 

In  Virginia  elementary  and  secondary  education  were 
long  left  to  take  care  of  themselves.  There  were  in  the 
South  some  voluntary  elementary  schools  started,  but 
much  of  the  schooling  was  by  private  tutor. 

The  first  academy  in  the  colonies  was  set  up  in  Phila- 
delphia in  1751.  The  academy  differed  from  the  Latin 
Grammar  School  of  Massachusetts  in  that  it  was  privately 
endowed  instead  of  publicly  financed.  The  academy 
was  religious  in  its  origin  and  in  most  part  remained  so 
during  its  history.  However,  it  proved  to  be  more 
democratic  in  nature  than  was  the  public  Latin  Grammar 
School.  The  Grammar  School  sought  to  prepare  for 
college  the  wealthier  and  more  precocious ;  the  Academy 
sought  to  extend  its  services  more  to  the  masses.  In 
general,  the  latter  enrolled  the  more  mature  students. 
The  Latin  Grammar  School  did  not  develop  west  of  the 
Alleghenies ;  the  Academy  spread  throughout  the  Central 
States.  The  Latin  Grammar  School  extended  down- 
ward from  college ;  the  Academy  extended  upward  from 
the  elementary  school. 


6          MANUAL  FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

High  Schools.  The  first  High  School  was  founded  in 
Boston  in  1821,  and  was  called  the  English  Classical 
School.  This  type  of  school  spread  rapidly  and  in  time 
supplanted  both  the  Latin  Grammar  School  and  the 
Academy.  Today,  very  few  academies  are  found  except 
in  connection  with  the  colleges,  and  colleges  are  grad- 
ually dispensing  with  the  academy  course.  The  modern 
High  School  performs  the  function  both  of  preparation 
for  college,  as  did  the  Latin  Grammar  School,  and  the 
extension  of  the  Elementary  School,  as  did  the  Academy. 
In  general  it  may  be  stated  that  the  Latin  Grammar 
School  flourished  during  the  Colonial  period  to  the 
Revolutionary  War,  the  Academy  during  the  construc- 
tion period  of  our  Government  to  the  Civil  War,  and  the 
Public  High  School  during  the  reconstruction  period 
since  the  Civil  War. 

Plans  of  Organization.  The  Public  High  School 
usually  consists  of  four  years  of  work  following  eight 
years  of  preparation  in  an  elementary  course  in  the  com- 
mon branches.  The  curriculum  is  almost  entirely  dis- 
tinct from  that  of  the  elementary  school.  In  course  of 
study  the  High  School  has  moved  from  the  classical 
course  and  foreign  language  course  of  the  Latin  Gram- 
mar School  and  the  early  Academy  to  a  more  liberal 
course  in  History,  Science,  Commercial  and  Vocational 
subjects.  This  has  called  for  equipment,  laboratories 
and  libraries.  A  broader  course  is  offered,  and  in  the 
larger  high  schools  election  of  subject  matter  is  provided. 

In  the  past  few  years  a  new  organization  of  school  is 
being  tried  out  by  a  plan  known  as  the  Junior-Senior 
High  School,  or  the  6-3-3  plan.  The  elementary  grades 
here  have  a  six-year  course  and  the  high  school  a  six- 
year  course,  three  years  of  Junior  High  School  and  three 
years  of  Senior  High  School.  A  modification  of  this  plan 


MANUAL  FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS          7 

is  the  Elementary-Intermediate-High  School  plan,  or  the 
6-2-4  plan  of  six  years  of  elementary  work,  two  years 
of  intermediate  work  and  four  years  of  high  school  work. 
Either  plan  calls  for  a  modification  in  Course  of  Study  in 
the  Seventh  and  Eighth  grades.  These  have  much 
promise  and  are  beyond  the  experimental  stage.  It  is 
not  wise,  for  several  reasons,  for  the  small  school  to 
attempt  the  new  plan. 

Since  in  many  states  colleges  and  universities  are 
becoming  crowded,  especially  in  Freshman  and  Sopho- 
more years,  a  few  city  high  schools  are  extending  the 
course  to  include  two  years  of  college  work.  If  this  plan 
extends  to  numerous  city  high  schools  it  will  both  solve 
the  problem  of  congestion  in  colleges  and  universities, 
and  at  the  same  time,  because  of  proximity  of  the  stu- 
dents to  the  school,  make  it  possible  for  more  students 
to  receive  at  least  two  years  of  college  work.  There  is 
an  opinion  by  some  that  such  work  ought  to  receive  a 
subsidy  from  the  state. 

Still  another  plan  being  suggested  is  that  the  school 
should  be  organized  as  follows :  Elementary,  six  years ; 
Grammar  School  or  Junior  High  School,  two  years ;  High 
School  proper,  three  years,  and  Junior  College,  three 
years,  including  two  years  of  college  work.  This  would 
simply  be  a  change  in  organization.  By  this  plan  it  is 
thought  more  students  would  pursue  the  Junior  College 
work,  since  they  would  enter  this  department  one  year 
earlier. 


8          MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

CHAPTER  II 
School  Officials  and  Their  Functions 

In  the  management  of  the  school  we  have  several 
factors,  or  agents,  the  Board  of  Education,  the  superin- 
tendent, the  high  school  principal  and  often  one  or  more 
principals  of  ward  schools.  In  the  small  school  there 
are  usually  no  ward  principals,  and  sometimes  the  super- 
intendent performs  also  the  function  of  high  school 
principal. 

Board  of  Education.  The  Board  of  Education,  num- 
bering ordinarily  from  five  to  nine  members,  is  usually 
elected  by  the  people  of  the  district,  although  a  few  of 
the  larger  cities,  such  as  Chicago,  have  an  appointive 
plan.  Usually  all  board  members  are  chosen  at  large, 
and  do  not  represent  any  particular  ward,  or  district. 
This  is  a  legislative  body  in  general,  although  it  has  some 
executive  and  also  some  judicial  functions.  The  "Board" 
is  also  custodian  of  all  the  school  property.  A  secretary, 
or  clerk,  is  generally  chosen  from  outside  the  "Board". 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  Board  of  Education  to  provide 
a  plant  and  equipment  for  the  school,  to  establish  a  school 
year  and  to  fix  upon  a  course  of  study.  Perhaps  one 
of  the  most  important  duties  of  the  Board  of  Education 
is  to  elect  the  superintendent,  principals  and  teachers. 
In  the  smaller  districts  most  of  these  duties  are  per- 
formed by  the  "Board"  acting  together  as  a  whole.  Some 
of  the  larger  districts,  however,  have  numerous  commit- 
tees, with  which  are  left  the  performance  of  most  of  the 
duties.  A  few  of  the  committees  provided  are,  finance, 
buildings  and  grounds,  supplies,  or  purchasing  commit- 
tee, education,  and  teachers'  committee.  Usually  a  com- 
mittee consists  of  three  members  appointed  by  the  presi- 


MANUAL   FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS          9 

dent  of  the  "Board".  The  first  named  committeeman 
acts  as  chairman.  While  some  duties  may  perhaps  be 
better  performed  by  a  special  or  a  standing  committee, 
the  tendency  seems  to  be  to  overdo  the  committee  ap- 
pointments. Some  duties,  such  as  shaping  a  course  of 
study  and  electing  a  superintendent,  principals  and  teach- 
ers are  surely  important  enough  to  engross  the  attention 
of  the  whole  "Board".  In  the  ordinary  district  there 
seems  no  warrant  for  committees  other  than  a  purchasing 
committee  and  a  committee  on  buildings  and  grounds. 
Other  duties  of  the  "Board"  are  to  estimate  levies  for 
school  purposes  and  to  direct  the  taking  of  the  annual 
census  of  children  of  school  age.  Boards  should,  and  in 
most  cases  do,  hold  regular  monthly  board  meetings.  The 
better  schools  require  the  superintendent  to  attend  all 
regular  board  meetings,  to  give  a  general  report  on  the 
progress  of  the  school,  and  to  make  needed  recommenda- 
tions. This  is  very  important.  It  is  a  means  of  keep- 
ing the  members  of  the  "Board"  in  close  touch  with  the 
plans  of  the  school,  and  at  the  same  time  it  adds  to  the 
superintendent  the  important  responsibility  of  keeping 
himself  fully  informed  on  all  departments  of  the  work  of 
the  school.  In  meeting  the  superintendent  in  this  way, 
however,  the  "Board"  should  be  careful  not  to  overawe 
him,  nor  to  hamper  him  in  his  plans.  In  general,  his 
recommendations  should  be  adopted,  unless  good  reasons 
appear  for  contrary  action.  There  should  always  in  these 
meetings  be  co-operation  and  a  spirit  of  frankness. 

The  Superintendent.  The  superintendent  is  elected 
by  and  is  an  agent  of  the  Board  of  Education.  He  is 
more  than  the  latter,  however,  as  he  shapes  educational 
policies  and  supervises  the  work  of  principals  and  teach- 
ers. He  should  nominate  principals  and  teachers  for 


10         MANUAL   FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

election,  and  when  they  are  elected,  he  should  assign 
them  to  their  department  of  the  work. 

With  the  advice  of  the  "Board",  the  superintendent 
shapes  the  course  of  study  and  directs  the  general  edu- 
cational policy  of  the  school.  He  should  be  a  strong 
leader  for  his  teachers  and  should  be  able  to  train  them 
in  service.  He  is  also  the  first  "court  of  appeal"  for 
pupils,  teachers  and  patrons.  The  custom  in  a  few  dis- 
tricts is  for  pupils,  teachers  and  patrons  to  take  their 
grievances  directly  to  some  member  of  the  Board  of 
Education,  without  first  seeking  relief  and  adjustment 
in  the  superintendent's  office.  This  is  both  unfair  to  the 
superintendent  and  disastrous  to  the  school.  Board 
members  may  easily  prevent  this  by  requiring  these  mat- 
ters first  to  be  presented  to  the  superintendent.  If  they 
can  not  here  be  satisfactorily  adjusted,  the  aggrieved 
party  may  be  permitted  to  present  the  matter  to  the 
"Board"  in  session,  but  not  to  individual  members  of  that 
body. 

Aside  from  such  specific  duties  within  the  school,  the 
superintendent  has  some  important  general  duties.  He 
should  be  in  touch  with  the  business  and  social  interests 
of  the  community,  and  participate  in  a  reasonable  and 
legitimate  way  in  such  activities.  As  far  as  possible,  he 
ought  to  become  acquainted  with  the  parents  of  the 
pupils.  A  study  should  be  made  of  the  future  needs  of 
the  school,  so  that  at  the  proper  time  provision  may  be 
made  for  supplying  these  needs.  The  superintendent,  to 
be  of  most  worth,  should  be  a  strong  community  leader, 
and  represent  the  school  in  a  public  way. 

The  superintendent  needs  to  be  a  very  strong  organ- 
izer. Much  of  his  success  depends  on  his  ability  to 
organize.  He  must  at  the  same  time  be  an  administrator 
of  affairs  within  the  school  and  a  director  of  certain 
activities  without  the  school.  Perhaps  the  greatest  lack 


MANUAL  FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS         11 

in  the  average  superintendent  of  schools  is  his  inability 
or  disinclination  properly  to  supervise  the  work  of  the 
teachers  and  to  co-ordinate  the  work  of  the  various  de- 
partments. Some  experienced  teachers  in  the  school 
system  may  need  very  little  supervision  in  their  work, 
while  other  inexperienced  teachers  need  much  help.  It 
is  the  superintendent's  duty  to  ascertain  the  department 
needing  assistance  and  to  find  time  to  render  such. 

Ward  Principals.  What  has  been  said  regarding  the 
duties  of  the  superintendent  will,  in  a  slight  way,  apply 
to  ward  principals.  They  bear  the  same  relation  to  their 
district,  the  parents,  the  pupils  and  the  teachers,  but  do 
not  have  direct  relations  with  the  Board  of  Education. 
They  direct  and  supervise  the  work  of  their  teachers,  but 
have  no  direct  part  in  choosing  them  nor  complete 
authority  in  assigning  them  to  their  positions.  In  their 
school  they  are  direct  agents  of  the  superintendent. 
Usually  the  ward  principals  spend  a  part  of  their  time  in 
instruction. 

The  High  School  Principal.  The  high  school  prin- 
cipal has  a  similar  relation  to  the  superintendent  and  to 
the  Board  of  Education  as  do  the  ward  principals,  but  he 
has  a  wider  constituency.  In  his  work  he  is  more  of  a 
specialist  than  either  the  ward  principals  or  the  super- 
intendent. The  high  school  is  the  most  complex  part 
of  the  school  organization.  The  high  school  principal 
cannot  deal  with  his  students  through  his  teachers  only, 
but  in  their  activities  and  organizations  he  must  deal 
with  them  directly.  He  must  be  tactful  in  directing  all 
the  agencies  of  his  school  so  as  to  grant  freedom  of  action 
to  all  adolescent  youth  and  yet  keep  a  constraining  hand 
on  their  actions.  Whatever  is  done  by  the  organizations 
of  his  school  should  be  under  the  control  of  the  school. 


12        MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

It  is  also  a  difficult  matter  to  properly  finance  the 
activities  of  the  high  school.  In  all  this  the  high  school 
must  be  an  integral  part  of  the  whole  school  system  and 
work  in  harmony  with  it.  The  high  school  principal, 
also,  has  no  direct  relations  with  the  Board  of  Education, 
but  is  responsible  directly  to  the  superintendent.  In 
small  and  moderate-sized  high  schools  the  principal  usu- 
ally teaches  one  or  more  classes.  Where  his  time  per- 
mits him  to  do  so  it  is  wise,  for  he  is  thus  better 
acquainted  with  the  student  body  and  in  closer  touch  with 
the  actual  work  of  the  school.  In  this  way  he  is  also 
better  able  to  keep  the  student  attitude. 

General  Considerations.  A  few  general  considera- 
tions are  in  point  at  this  time.  While  the  system  calls 
for  responsibility  to  those  higher  in  authority  and  de- 
manding of  fealty  on  the  part  of  those  lower  in  authority, 
there  should  be  on  the  part  of  all  factors  and  agents  the 
heartiest  co-operation  and  good  will.  The  wise  superin- 
tendent will  seek  advice  from  his  principals  on  many 
points,  even  in  selecting  and  assigning  teachers  to  their 
respective  departments.  The  principals,  in  their  turn, 
will  do  well  to  freely  advise  with  the  teachers.  Super- 
vision should  not  be  so  strict. that  it  robs  the  school  of 
individual  initiative.  Just  now  there  is  a  demand  on  the 
part  of  teachers  for  more  voice  in  shaping  and  adminis- 
tering the  policies  of  the  school.  These  advocates  say 
the  present  system  is  autocratic  rather  than  democratic. 
No  doubt  this  new  movement,  if  not  carried  too  far,  will 
bring  about  a  better  organization  than  we  now  have. 
Changes  must  be  wrought  carefully,  however.  Co-oper- 
ation of  teachers  in  shaping  the  policies  of  a  school  is 
legitimate,  but  a  strong  administration  demands,  as  in 
national  government,  one  strong  administrative  head. 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS        13 

A  Question  of  Relationships.  The  relationship  be- 
tween the  Superintendent  of  a  school  and  the  "Board 
of  Education"  is  not  generally  understood.  Legal  stat- 
utes, while  providing  for  the  position  of  a  superintendent 
of  schools,  do  not  outline  his  powers  and  duties  to  such 
an  extent  as  they  do  those  of  the  teacher  or  the  "Board". 
Different  states,  cities  and  teachers'  organizations  have 
appointed  committees  to  define  the  duties  and  powers 
of  the  superintendent.  Brief  statements  from  a  few  of 
these  are  here  inserted : 

"At  the  head  of  the  school  department  is  the  super- 
intendent of  schools.  His  chief  function  will  be  the 
supervision  of  instruction,  but  with  final  jurisdiction 
subject  only  to  the  board  of  school  directors,  in  the  case 
of  other  matters  than  instruction.  He  should  be  made 
the  real  head  and  leader  of  the  school  system  in  fact  as 
well  as  in  name,  and  full  responsibility  for  the  successful 
conduct  of  all  departments  of  the  educational  service 
should  be  placed  squarely  on  his  shoulders.  As  long  as 
the  board  has  confidence  in  the  judgment  and  ability  of 
the  superintendent,  he  should  be  supported  in  his  acts ; 
when  they  cease  to  have  such  confidence,  they  should  call 
for  his  resignation.  They  should  not  assume  authority 
on  educational  matters  themselves,  nor  permit  him  to 
evade  his  proper  responsibility  by  putting  it  off  on  them. 
Book  agents,  applicants  for  teachers'  positions,  disgruntled 
teachers  and  principals,  and  persons  seeking  favors  in  the 
educational  branch  of  the  school  department  should  at 
once  be  referred  to  the  superintendent  of  schools,  with 
the  statement  that  the  board  makes  it  a  rule  to  take  no 
action  except  upon  his  recommendation." — The  Portland, 
Oregon,  Survey. 

"The  proper  lines  of  demarcation  between  the  func- 
tions of  a  school  board  and  a  superintendent  are  perfectly 
clear.  The  relations  should  be  exactly  similar  to  those 


14         MANUAL   FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

between  the  board  of  directors  of  a  railway  or  manufac- 
turing or  banking  corporation  and  the  active  managers 
of  those  concerns.  The  directors  advise  and  recommend, 
and,  if  need  be,  check  the  president  in  too  rapid  expansion 
of  the  business  or  in  a  manifestly  unwise  policy.  But  the 
successful  corporation  is  managed  by  a  generally  un- 
hampered and  well-supported  president,  whose  reputation 
is  at  stake  and  whose  interests  are  bound  up  with  those 
of  the  stockholders.  The  same  must  be  true  of  a  school 
system.  The  superintendent  should  be  very  carefully  and 
wisely  chosen,  and  then  held  fully  responsible  for  the 
success  of  the  schools.  Just  as  the  president  of  a  railroad 
must  be  free  to  select  his  expert  assistants,  so  must  the 
superintendent  be  free  to  select  his  teachers,  even  his 
janitors.  When  he  proves  unable  to  do  this  wisely  he 
has  proved  his  unfitness  for  his  position." — Report  of  a 
Survey  of  the  Public  School  of  Leavenworth,  Kans. 

"The  individual  board  member  should  not  attempt 
to  dictate  school  policies  to  the  superintendent  or  to  listen 
to  complaints  from  principals,  teachers  or  parents.  All 
such  complaints  should  be  referred  to  the  superin- 
tendent. An  individual  board  member  does  not  have  the 
authority  of  even  the  lowest  paid  employe,  unless  the 
board  by  resolution  has  delegated  him  to  exercise  author- 
ity in  certain  matters.  A  board  of  education  should 
employ  a  superintendent  of  schools  to  act  as  its  executive 
officer.  To  him  it  should  delegate  the  authority  to  nom- 
inate teachers,,  to  recommend  their  dismissal,  to  select 
text-books,  to  formulate  courses  of  study,  to  recommend 
increases  in  teachers'  salaries  for  efficient  service,  and  to 
have  general  supervision  of  instruction." — Survey  Re- 
port, Ogden,  Utah. 

"The  superintendent  occupies  a  position  of  peculiar 
responsibility.  He  is  the  intermediary  between  the 
public  and  the  schools.  His  function  resembles  that  of 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS        15 

the  architect  as  an  intermediary  between  owner  and 
contractor.  He  must  verify  the  validity  of  the  demands 
of  the  community.  He  must  then  reconcile  the  demands 
with  educational  possibilities.  He  must  take  all  the  sug- 
gestions given  by  the  community  and  then  embody  them 
in  a  workable  educational  program.  This  the  community 
cannot  do ;  neither  can  it  be  done  by  the  board.  Just  as 
an  architect  in  the  case  of  a  building,  they  lack  the 
special  qualifications  for  the  expert  adjustment  of  the 
details.  Community  and  board  can  tell  what  they  want; 
then  under  their  supervision  the  superintendent  will  draw 
up  the  courses  of  study,  select  the  text-books  to  be  used, 
select  the  supplementary  books,  apparatus,  equipment, 
select  teachers  who  have  the  necessary  qualifications  for 
doing  the  work  desired,  etc.  It  is  he  who  is  in  a  position 
best  to  understand  these  various  technical  educational 
matters.  The  responsibility  for  the  labors  should  neces- 
sarily be  placed  upon  his  shoulders,  with  those  less 
expert  sitting  in  supervisory  capacity.  In  thus  placing 
responsibility  upon  the  superintendent  the  board  is  not 
thereby  relieved.  They  must  approve  or  disapprove  of 
the  results  of  his  labors.  In  order  to  judge  wisely,  they 
must  be  in  contact  with  the  schools.  They  must  know 
his  actual  labors,  not  his  mere  statement  of  them.  They 
should  visit  the  schools,  observe,  discuss,  and  lead  in 
community  discussion.  Unless  they  know  rather  inti- 
mately the  way  their  suggestions  work  out  in  actual  edu- 
cational practice,  they  are  not  in  a  position  to  approve 
or  disapprove  of  the  decisions  of  the  superintendent. 
School  board  members  are  not  supposed  to  be  mere 
rubber  stamps.  They  must  know  what  is  going  on."- 
Survey  Report,  San  Antonio,  Texas. 

"They  (the  school  board)  should  not  make  the  com- 
mon mistake  of  attempting  to  assume  authority  on  edu- 
cational matters  themselves,  concerning  which  they 


16        MANUAL   FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

cannot  act  intelligently,  nor  should  they  permit  the 
superintendent  of  schools  to  evade  his  proper  responsi- 
bility by  putting  it  off  on  them. 

"This  does  not  mean  that  the  board  of  school  trustees 
will  have  nothing  left  to  do.  On  the  contrary,  there  will 
still  be  plenty  left  for  them  to  manage.  It  simply  means 
that  in  those  matters  which  are  matters  of  expert  judg- 
ment, and  which  no  board  of  laymen  is  competent  to 
decide,  they  ought  to  act  only  on  the  recommendation 
of  the  educational  expert  they  employ,  and  ought  to  trust. 
It  is  a  sheer  waste  of  public  funds  to  pay  $4,000  for  an 
educational  expert,  and  then  disregard  his  advice  and 
judgment. 

"In  all  matters  such  as  the  hygienic  aspects  of  school- 
house  construction,  the  authorizing  of  courses  of  study, 
the  selection  of  text  and  supplemental  books,  passing  on 
the  competency  of  instruction  or  the  efficiency  of  the 
service  in  the  school  department, — matters  which  no 
board  of  laymen  is  competent  to  pass  intelligently  upon, 
— action  should  be  based  only  on  the  recommendation  of 
the  expert  educational  office  of  the  board. 

"This  leaves  the  board  free  to  attend  to  the  main  busi- 
ness which  they  are  elected  to  handle,  and  frees  them 
from  the  hundreds  of  petty  annoyances  incident  to  the 
personal  pulls  and  influences  which  beset  any  lay  school 
board  which  attempts  to  exercise  expert  functions." — 
School  Survey  Report,  Butte,  Montana. 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS         17 

CHAPTER  III 

Employment  and  Assignment  of  Teachers  and 
Other  Employes 

Comparative  Importance.  Perhaps  the  most  impor- 
tant task  the  Board  of  Education  has  to  perform  is  to 
employ  superintendent,  principals  and  teachers.  Some 
educators  estimate  that  the  teacher  constitutes  85  per 
cent  of  the  efficiency  of  a  school.  From  the  educational 
standpoint  the  teacher  is  at  least  a  vital  factor  in  the 
school.  With  the  average  Board  of  Education,  also,  this 
duty  is  the  one  it  is  least  capable  of  performing.  This 
is  no  criticism  either  on  the  intelligence  or  the  general 
ability  of  the  "Board"  members. 

The  average  "Board"  member  knows  considerable  re- 
garding laying  out  of  grounds,  construction  of  buildings, 
purchase  of  equipment,  supplies,  etc.  His  practical  ex- 
perience and  business  ability  has  brought  him  in  contact 
with  such  matters.  He  also  knows  how  to  estimate  costs, 
figure  levies,  etc.  Teaching  is  a  special  profession,  how- 
ever, which  the  average  "Board"  member  can  not  be 
expected  to  understand.  He  does  not  know  the  elements 
which  enter  into  the  training  of  a  teacher  for  service. 
He  cannot  understand  the  kind  of  training  nor  the  type 
of  personality  of  the  teacher  which  counts  for  success  in 
leadership  of  school  children,  for  he  can  not  get  the 
teacher's  point  of  view.  Only  one  trained  in  the  psychol- 
ogy of  childhood  and  in  the  profession  of  teaching  can 
make  a  careful  estimate  of  a  teacher's  ability  to  succeed 
with  pupils,  and  such  a  one  sometimes  errs  in  judgment. 

Employing  a  Superintendent.  In  employment  of 
those  to  be  instructors  in  the  school,  the  first  and  most 
important  duty  is  the  selection  of  a  superintendent.  This 


18         MANUAL   FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

is  too  important  a  matter  to  be  left  with  a  committee, 
either  to  choose  or  to  recommend.  The  whole  "Board" 
should  consider  this  matter  together  and  discuss  the 
candidates  freely.  The  author  knew  one  "Board"  mem- 
ber with  seventeen  years'  experience  as  a  member  and 
twelve  of  these  years  as  president  of  the  "Board",  who,  in 
choosing  a  superintendent,  took  the  various  candidates 
as  they  appeared,  and  introduced  them  to  several  business 
men,  citizens  and  patrons  of  the  school.  He  did  this  so 
that  it  was  informal  and  seemingly  incidental.  When  the 
candidate  had  left  the  community,  this  president  of  the 
"Board"  would  casually  drop  in  on  those  to  whom  he  had 
introduced  him,  and  without  arousing  suspicion  of  his 
motive,  ascertain  how  the  candidate  had  impressed  his 
new  acquaintances.  In  this  way  he  was  able  to  de- 
termine, to  some  extent,  the  bearing  the  candidate's  per- 
sonality had  on  others. 

The  usual  plan  of  advertising  a  vacancy  in  the  office 
of  superintendent  of  the  school  and  then  waiting  until 
from  a  score  to  a  hundred  candidates  have  applied,  many 
of  them  in  person,  is  doubtful  in  both  justice  and  effi- 
ciency. But  one  candidate  can  be  employed,  yet  many 
go  to  much  expense  in  traveling  to  make  personal  applica- 
tion. A  better  method  is  to  seek  out  quietly  several 
available  persons  and  investigate  their  record.  These 
may,  if  desired,  be  asked  to  make  personal  application. 
The  "Board"  should,  in  fairness,  reimburse  such  candi- 
dates for  the  expense  of  the  visit.  If  the  candidate  spends 
two  or  three  days  in  making  the  visit,  which  is  of  intended 
benefit  to  the  two  parties,  the  "Board"  visited  should, 
as  its  share,  bear  the  expense  of  the  trip.  It  would  seem 
that  no  superintendent  ought  to  be  employed  until  at 
least  a  majority  of  the  board  members  have  met  him 
personally.  This  ought  not  to  be  an  "unsight  and  un- 
seen" transaction. 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS        19 

Another  method  is  for  the  Board  of  Education  to  ask 
the  state  educational  officials  or  some  other  experienced 
and  prominent  educators  to  recommend  two  or  three 
suitable  persons  for  the  local  superintendency.  A  com- 
mittee of  the  "Board"  can  then  visit  the  districts  where 
such  recommended  persons  are  serving  and  investigate 
their  work  in  such  community. 

It  is  better  that  a  person  chosen  for  superintendent 
should  have  had  experience  as  superintendent  in  another 
school,  or  have  had  supervision  work  of  some  nature. 
Training  in  school  supervision  and  administration  while 
in  college  or  normal  school  is  a  substitute  of  some  value 
if  actual  experience  has  not  been  secured.  It  is  needless 
to  say  that  superintendents  should  have  had  teaching 
experience. 

It  is  usually  considered  that  a  superintendent  should 
have  scholastic  training  equal  to  or  greater  than  the 
teachers  who  are  to  teach  with  him,  as  he  is  to  be  their 
educational  leader.  In  a  large  school  system,  however, 
it  often  occurs  that  a  special  teacher  in  some  department 
has  a  higher  "degree"  than  the  superintendent.  The 
teachers'  training  has  been  special,  while  the  superin- 
tendent's training  has  been  general.  The  work  of  the 
latter  is  that  of  an  organizer  and  an  administrator  rather 
than  a  teacher.  His  experience  has  probably  been 
broader  and  more  extended  and  he  may  be  highly  suc- 
cessful in  his  work.  It  need  not  disqualify  him,  there- 
fore, if  one  or  more  of  his  teachers  rank  higher  in  college 
or  university  recognition. 

The  matter  of  age  is  a  matter  to  consider  in  selecting 
a  superintendent.  All  agree  that  he  should  be  neither 
too  young  a  man  nor  too  old,  yet  the  question  is,  "How 
young  or  how  old  may  he  be?"  No  definite  rule  can  be 
given.  One  superintendent  may  be  mature  at  twenty- 
four  and  another  a  boy  at  thirty.  Again,  one  superin- 


20        MANUAL  FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

tendent  may  be  old  and  out  of  touch  with  young  life 
at  forty,  while  another  may  be  young  and  ambitious  at 
sixty-five.  One  of  the  best  and  most  enthusiastic  super- 
intendents the  writer  knows  is  seventy  years  of  age.  He 
gets  excellent  results  and  is  a  favorite  with  students.  In 
a  small  school  system  it  is  more  important  that  the  super- 
intendent be  young  in  spirit  and  in  outlook,  for  the  reason 
that  he  comes  in  more  direct  touch  with  the  student  body. 
At  the  same  time  he  should  have  maturity  of  judgment. 
In  a  large  school  system,  where  the  superintendent  does 
not  come  so  much  in  direct  contact  with  students,  but 
reaches  them  through  principals  and  teachers  and  his 
problems  are  larger  and  more  complex,  there  seems  to  be 
no  valid  reason  why  the  superintendent  should  lose  value 
at  fifty  or  fifty-five  years  of  age  any  more  than  in  other 
professions  or  occupations.  Business  and  government 
work  attest  to  the  fact  that  the  heavier  burdens  and  re- 
sponsibilities are  borne  successfully  by  men  and  women 
from  fifty  to  seventy  years  of  age.  Experience  in  super- 
vision and  administration  should  be  a  strong  factor  for 
consideration  in  employment  of  a  superintendent.  An 
inexperienced  superintendent,  unless  he  be  especially 
trained  for  supervisory  and  administrative  work  in  edu- 
cation, is  likely  to  pass  through  several  experimental 
years  before  he  becomes  proficient ;  he  is  apt,  indeed,  to 
do  the  school  system  more  harm  than  good. 

One  other  phase  ought  to  be  mentioned,  and  that  is 
the  source  from  which  superintendents  may  legitimately 
be  drawn.  As  mentioned  in  the  preceding  paragraph, 
they  should  be  persons  with  teaching  experience.  A 
normal  school  graduate  or  a  college  graduate  may  assume 
the  superintendency  of  a  school  directly  without  teach- 
ing experience  and  perhaps  in  time  become  successful. 
If  so,  he  does  it  by  gradually  experimenting  and  by  learn- 
ing from  his  kindly  tolerant  teachers.  The  chances  are 


MANUAL  FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS        21 

against  his  being  a  valuable  superintendent  for  several 
years.  It  is  a  decided  mistake  to  employ  such  in  this 
capacity. 

A  superintendent  of  a  small  school  is  gaining  experi- 
ence which  naturally  fits  him  for  the  superintendency  in 
a  larger  system,  and  this  is  the  source  from  which  most 
of  the  superintendents  in  the  better  schools  are  drawn. 
Occasionally  it  happens  that  a  high  school  principal  is 
promoted  to  the  superintendency  of  the  school.  If  he 
has  previously  supervised  grades  or  taught  in  the  grades 
this  may  be  a  wise  choice,  but  if  not,  such  a  choice  is 
experimental.  Such  a  superintendent  is  apt  to  give  too 
much  attention  to  the  high  school  end  of  the  work,  where 
he  is  familiar,  and  at  best  it  will  be  a  long  time  before 
he  understands  grade  problems.  A  more  logical  source, 
it  would  seem,  would  be  the  selection  of  a  ward  principal 
for  the  superintendency,  if  he  meets  qualifications  edu- 
cationally. The  selection  of  a  county  superintendent  as 
head  of  a  school  system  is  seldom  followed,  although  in 
many  ways  a  county  superintendent's  experience  would 
be  a  valuable  asset  in  such  a  position.  The  county  super- 
intendent is  now  divorced  from  politics  in  many  states, 
so  this  need  be  no  objection. 

The  question  may  arise  as  to  whether  a  man  or  a 
woman  should  be  chosen  to  be  the  head  of  a  school  sys- 
tem. Thus  far  a  preponderance  of  superintendents  have 
been  men.  There  seems  to  be  no  objection  "a  priori" 
why  a  woman  may  not  be  selected,  and  cases  may  be 
mentioned  where  women  have  been  selected  and  have 
made  records  as  successful  school  administrators  and 
supervisors.  However,  the  usual  choice  of  a  man  for 
such  position  may  be  justified  on  two  grounds.  First, 
the  rank  and  file  of  teachers,  especially  in  the  grades,  are 
women.  In  the  Primary  and  Intermediate  grades  women 
are  better  adapted  to  the  work  than  are  men.  To  balance 


MANUAL   FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

the  matter  and  to  bring  pupils  in  their  educational  ex- 
perience into  contact  with  both  feminine  and  masculine 
natures  it  is  only  reasonable  to  employ  some  men  as 
instructors  and  administrators  in  the  upper  departments 
of  the  school.  In  the  smaller  schools  it  often  occurs  that 
the  superintendent  is  the  only  male  member  of  the 
faculty.  In  such  case  the  employment  of  a  woman  as 
superintendent  would  leave  the  school  one-sided  in  this 
respect.  There  is  no  doubt  that  such  a  situation  would 
lessen  the  appeal  of  the  school  to  the  larger  boys,  at  least. 
The  superintendent  represents  the  school  in  the  com- 
munity and  comes  into  contact  with  the  Board  members 
and  business  men.  This  is  the  second  obvious  reason 
why  Boards  of  Education  usually  prefer  a  man  for  super- 
intendent of  the  school.  It  is  no  reflection  on  the  ability 
of  women. 

Selection  of  Principals.  What  has  been  said  regard- 
ing the  selection  of  a  superintendent  applies  also  in  large 
measure  to  selection  of  principals.  Several  differences 
exist,  however.  The  Board  of  Education  here  has  the 
assistance  of  a  superintendent  in  making  a  choice.  The 
position  of  a  principal,  also,  is  more  specific  in  its  nature 
and  therefore  less  general,  especially  as  regards  the  high 
school.  Not  so  much  administrative  ability  is  needed, 
but  the  principal  should  be  a  good  instructor  and  a  strong 
supervisor.  A  ward  principal  may  be  chosen  from  among 
the  superintendents  of  smaller  school  systems  or  may 
come  from  the  ranks  of  the  teacher.  If  he  teaches,  it  is 
usually  better  that  he  instruct  in  the  higher  grades  of 
the  building,  as  he  will  thus  better  command  the  respect 
of  the  entire  body  of  pupils.  Many  schools  employ  lady 
ward  principals,  and  with  excellent  results.  A  high 
school  principal  also  may  be  chosen  from  the  ranks  of 
superintendents  of  smaller  school  systems,  and  should 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS        23 

be  one  with  a  strong  bent  for  high  school  work.  It  is, 
of  course,  better  if  the  high  school  principal  has  had 
experience  as  a  high  school  instructor. 

Selection  and  Assignment  of  Teachers.  The  selection 
of  teachers  is  perhaps  most  important  because  there  are 
comparatively  more  of  them,  and  because  they  touch  most 
closely  the  life  of  the  pupils.  Personality  here  is  a  vital 
factor,  and  personality  is  difficult  to  judge.  A  superin- 
tendent should  use  great  care  in  his  recommendation  of 
teachers,  and  the  Board  of  Education  should  then  respect 
the  superintendent's  judgment  and  accept  his  recom- 
mendations, unless  exceptionally  strong  reasons  exist 
why  the  recommendations  should  not  be  accepted.  The 
preparation  and  experience  of  teacher  candidates  should 
be  known,  and  when  possible  the  superintendent  should 
have  a  personal  interview  with  applicants.  It  is  still 
better  if  he  is  able  to  see  each  teacher  applicant  at  work 
in  another  school  and  to  ascertain  the  measure  of  her 
worth  there.  A  Board  of  Education  may  well  afford  to 
expend  a  reasonable  amount  in  traveling  expenses  of  a 
superintendent  in  investigating  the  work  of  prospective 
teachers,  and  many  Boards  of  Education  are  accustomed 
to  do  so. 

The  qualities  of  a  candidate  to  be  considered  are,  edu- 
cational preparation,  professional  training,  teaching  ex- 
perience, moral  character  and  personality.  It  is  not  al- 
ways necessary,  of  course,  that  a  teacher  should  have  had 
actual  experience  in  a  school  on  her  own  responsibility, 
in  order  to  be  favorably  considered  for  a  position.  A 
good  substitute  for  actual  experience  is  practice  teaching 
in  a  suitable  training  school.  Indeed,  it  may  not  always 
be  that  an  experienced  teacher  is  superior  to  an  inex- 
perienced teacher.  This  all  depends  on  the  kind  of 
experience.  Some  types  of  experience  are  worse  than 


24        MANUAL   FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

none  at  all.  In  considering  both  training  and  experience 
it  is  well  to  inquire  whether  such  pertains  to  the  position 
to  be  filled.  Evidently  an  applicant  with  Primary  train- 
ing but  no  experience  is  better  adapted  to  a  Primary 
position  than  an  experienced  Grammar  school  teacher 
without  Primary  training. 

In  the  past,  too  little  attention  has  been  given  to  the 
matter  of  proper  education  and  training  of  teachers. 
There  has  been  somehow  a  general  feeling  that  if  a 
teacher  has  had  experience  she  should  be  a  good  teacher. 
Educators  are  now  coming  to  see  that  experience  is  but 
one  factor,  and  not  the  stronger  factor.  Scholastic  prepa- 
ration, study  of  methods  and  proper  training  are  also 
necessary.  In  brief,  it  is  felt  that  a  high  school  teacher 
should  be  a  college  graduate  with  a  degree,  and  that  her 
course  in  college  should  include  strong  work  in  Edu- 
cation. A  grade  teacher  should  be  a  two-year  Normal 
School  graduate  and  have  had  considerable  training  in 
teaching.  A  special  supervisor  should  meet  the  same 
demands  and  have  majored  in  her  special  subject.  A 
principal  or  superintendent  should  be  a  college  graduate 
with  a  degree,  his  course  to  include  much  in  Education, 
and  he  also  should,  if  possible,  have  taken  a  course  in 
School  Administration  and  Supervision.  No  superin- 
tendent should  be  employed  as  such  who  has  not  had 
experience  in  teaching,  and  it  is  better  if  he  has  also  had 
experience  in  administration  and  supervision. 

The  question  may  be  asked,  "Where  may  a  superin- 
tendent find  suitable  teachers,  in  a  normal  school,  col- 
lege, university,  or  through  an  agency?"  The  answer 
is,  "In  all  these."  Reputable  schools  are  usually  a  safe 
source.  Some  states  provide  free  placement  bureaus  for 
such  purposes.  Commercial  agencies  of  good  standing 
are  also  to  be  trusted.  Another  source  is  to  find  them 
in  service  in  other  schools.  This,  of  course,  is  intended 


MANUAL  FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS        25 

to  mean  when  employing  teachers  for  a  succeeding  year, 
a  term  beyond  the  contract  period  the  teacher  is  then 
serving.  It  is  both  unethical  and  non-professional  to 
induce  a  teacher  to  break  a  contract.  Teachers  are  prac- 
tically always  employed  by  the  school  year,  from  Sep- 
tember to  June,  in  the  graded  and  high  schools,  so  it  is 
perfectly  legitimate  for  a  school  to  secure  a  teacher  from 
another  school  for  the  following  year. 

Another  question  sometimes  arises  concerning  the 
employment  of  teachers.  Is  it  better  to  employ  resident 
teachers  or  non-resident  teachers?  There  are  certain 
advantages  in  each  plan.  The  resident  teacher  is  better 
known  by  the  local  school  authorities  as  to  character, 
personality,  etc.  She  is  apt,  also,  to  have  more  interest 
in  the  community,  and  may  be  a  more  valuable  asset  in 
this  way.  She  knows  the  local  situation  better ;  knows 
the  possibilities  and  limitations  of  the  school.  If  the 
community  is  small  she  knows  the  personnel  of  her  pupils, 
the  home  conditions,  etc.  On  the  other  hand,  she  her- 
self has  handicaps  in  the  same  way.  Both  the  pupils 
and  parents  know  the  peculiarities  and  limitations  of  the 
teacher.  She  is  thus  open  to  freer  criticism.  Especially 
if  the  teacher  is  young  and  inexperienced,  will  this  be 
true.  If  she  is  a  teacher  then  in  the  high  school  depart- 
ment, there  is  a  tendency  for  her  to  be  called  by  her  given 
name  by  the  students.  Such  familiarity  is  usually  detri- 
mental to  the  teacher's  control  and  influence.  It  takes 
more  courage  to  get  rid  of  a  mediocre  teacher  if  she  is  a 
resident  of  the  community.  The  employment  of  a  non- 
resident teacher  avoids,  of  course,  these  things.  How- 
ever, she  is  more  apt  to  lack  interest  in  community 
affairs.  She  is  also  prone  to  go  from  school  to  school 
on  inducement  of  a  slightly  larger  salary.  If  all  teachers 
are  non-resident  it  makes  for  serious  lack  of  permanency 
in  the  school ;  if  all  home  teachers  are  employed  it  tends 


26        MANUAL   FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

to  narrowness  in  policy  and  method.  The  "happy 
medium"  is  better,  where  there  are  both  some  home 
teachers  and  some  non-resident  teachers  employed  in 
each  building  and  each  department.  In  employment  of 
home  teachers  some  boards  of  education  require  that  the 
teacher  shall  first  have  had  successful  experience  in  some 
other  school.  This  would  seem  to  be  a  wise  provision. 

In  employment  of  teachers  none  should  be  employed 
for  family  nor  for  political  reasons,  nor  because  the 
teacher  needs  a  job.  The  school  should  be  placed  neither 
on  a  political  nor  a  charitable  basis.  Any  board  member 
who  lends  his  vote  to  such  a  practice  is  either  too  incom- 
petent or  too  weak  to  represent  his  district  in  an  official 
capacity.  The  good  of  the  children  is  more  to  be  con- 
sidered than  the  good  of  any  teacher  or  any  teacher's 
family. 

A  matter  too  little  considered  in  many  schools  is  the 
proper  assignment  of  teachers.  A  teacher's  contract 
usually  assigns  her  to  teach  in  a  certain  grade  and  per- 
haps in  a  certain  building,  or  to  teach  certain  subjects. 
The  applicant  often  applies  for  a  position,  not  because 
she  is  particularly  adapted  to  it,  but  because  that  is  the 
position  she  knows  to  be  vacant.  She  may  fit  better  in 
another  position  than  the  one  to  which  her  contract  as- 
signs her.  A  few  "Boards"  use  more  freedom,  by  desig- 
nating in  the  contract  that  the  teacher  is  to  teach  in  the 
Primary  Department,  the  Intermediate  Department,  etc. 
This  plan  enables  the  superintendent  to  place  her  in  a 
room  or  on  a  subject  where  she  is  most  needed,  or  may 
even  permit  her  transfer  if  necessary.  Some  unsuccess- 
ful teachers  may  become  successful  when  thus  trans- 
ferred to  another  room  or  given  other  subjects  to  teach. 

One  prominent  educator  of  the  United  States  advo- 
cates promoting  a  teacher  year  by  year  with  her  class, 
to  avoid  the  pupils  having  frequent  change  of  teachers. 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS        27 

He  would  have  a  teacher  begin  with  the  First  Primary 
grade  and  keep  the  same  class  until  it  completes  the 
Eighth  grade.  This  is  no  doubt  extremely  radical,  as  no 
teacher  can  be  expected  to  be  especially  trained  for  so 
wide  a  field  of  service.  The  idea  might  be  practical  over 
a  narrower  range,  however.  There  seems  to  be  no  valid 
reason  why  a  teacher  trained  for  Primary  work  might 
not  take  a  class  through  the  three  Primary  grades,  an 
Intermediate  teacher  through  the  three  Intermediate 
grades,  or  a  Grammar  School  teacher  through  the  two 
Grammar  School  grades.  This  would  give  pupils  the 
same  teacher  for  two  or  three  years. 

The  work  of  the  High  School  is  usually  specialized, 
one  teacher  instructing  in  English,  another  in  Science, 
etc.  This  gives  each  teacher  some  work  with  each  grade 
of  the  High  School,  but  this  plan  of  course  tends  to  nar- 
rowness and  lack  of  correlation.  Some  superintendents, 
while  assigning  each  teacher  most  of  her  work  along  her 
special  line,  assign  her  one  or  two  other  subjects,  to 
give  the  teacher  the  wider  view  of  the  school  work  and 
better  to  keep  in  operation  the  correlation  feature.  One 
prominent  educator  advocates  that  each  High  School 
teacher  be  given  one  class  in  English,  so  that  this  subject 
will  be  better  correlated  with  all  other  work. 

There  is  another  point  in  the  assignment  of  teachers 
not  sufficiently  considered.  In  this  department  there  are 
several  groups  of  related  subjects,  such  as  English, 
Science,  etc.  While  all  these  groups  need  well  prepared 
teachers,  some  need  more  maturity  of  judgment  and 
experience  in  life's  school  to  interpret  most  efficiently. 
The  English  and  Social  Science  fields  ought  to  have 
teachers  of  experience  and  mature  judgment,  if  the  stu- 
dents are  to  receive  the  best  interpretation  of  life's  prob- 
lems and  the  most  inspiration  in  the  class-room.  Yet 
how  often  we  find  the  younger  teachers  assigned  to  the 


28        MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

English  and  the  Social  Science  subjects.  Somehow 
there  is  a  feeling  among  superintendents  and  school 
officials  that  any  instructor  can  teach  English  or  History, 
but  the  demand  is  for  a  special  teacher  for  Science,  Mathe- 
matics or  Foreign  Language.  There  is  at  least  room 
for  serious  consideration  at  this  point. 

The  Special  Teacher,  or  Supervisor.  In  the  past  few 
years  there  has  developed  in  the  larger  schools  a  new 
class  of  teachers  known  as  the  special  teacher,  or  super- 
visor of  a  special  subject  or  subjects.  Teachers  in  "various 
schools  have  been  chosen  to  have  charge  of  such  special 
subjects  as  Vocal  Music,  Drawing,  Penmanship,  Physical 
Culture,  Home  Economics,  and  Manual  Training.  Inex- 
perienced superintendents  are  sometimes  puzzled  to 
judge  the  relationship  of  this  type  of  teacher  to  the 
superintendent  and  to  the  general  teaching  force.  In- 
deed, even  the  experienced  superintendent  sometimes 
finds  difficulty  in  properly  "cataloguing"  her  and  keeping 
her  rightly  classified.  The  supervisor  may  take  herself 
too  seriously,  and  the  teachers  in  general  may  be  jealous 
of  the  special  teacher,  who  seems  to  "usurp"  some  of  their 
own  authority. 

Shall  this  special  teacher  teach,  supervise,  or  do  both? 
No  doubt  in  the  large  city  system  of  schools  she  should 
supervise  only,  or  supervise  and  train  the  regular  teach- 
ers to  do  the  work  of  teaching  and  training  the  pupils 
in  the  special  subject.  In  the  smaller  system,  however, 
there  is  no  reason  why  such  teacher  should  not  teach 
some  in  each  room  and  thus  bring  the  inspiration  of  her 
special  ability  directly  to  the  pupils.  If  the  school  sys- 
tem is  small  enough  she  may  even  be  able  to  do  all  the 
teaching  necessary  in  her  special  subject. 

Another  question  arises  as  to  who  shall  be  responsible 
for  the  deportment  of  pupils  in  a  room  while  the  teacher 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS        29 

is  training  pupils.  If  pupils  are  taken  to  a  special  room 
for  the  exercise  it  would  seem  that  the  special  teacher 
should  have  full  charge.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  exer- 
cise is  conducted  in  the  regular  class  room  the  class  room 
teacher  should  retain  her  authority  and  assist  in  conduct- 
ing the  work,  so  far  as  discipline  and  the  attention  of 
pupils  to  the  task  is  concerned.  In  any  event,  if  the 
regular  teacher  must  teach  the  subject  on  days  when  the 
special  teacher  is  not  present  in  the  room,  she  should 
be  present  when  the  supervisor  is  conducting  the  work 
and  give  her  undivided  attention  to  the  class  exercise. 

The  question  of  authority  also  may  arise.  There 
should,  of  course,  be  co-operation,  but  no  special  teacher 
should  be  allowed  to  usurp  authority  in  the  domain  of  a 
regular  teacher  in  her  class  room.  Again,  shall  the  super- 
visor have  authority  to  call  meetings  of  the  teachers  for 
instruction  and  training?  If  such  meetings  be  called, 
they  should  be  called  by  the  superintendent  rather  than 
by  the  supervisor.  Shall  special  teachers  be  called  upon 
to  do  hall  duty  and  other  general  duties?  If  needed  for 
this  purpose,  "yes".  They  are  employes  of  the  district 
and  should  serve  the  same  as  other  teachers  in  special 
ways.  In  general,  there  should  be  caution  that  the 
special  teacher  and  her  work  be  not  isolated  from  the 
regular  school  work. 

The  Choice  and  Function  of  a  Janitor.  So  far  as  the 
small  school  is  concerned  there  is  often  no  such  thing 
as  "choice"  of  a  janitor,  for  the  "Board"  has  no  choice 
in  the  matter  but  to  take  whom  it  can  get.  In  such  case 
the  employe  is  usually  an  old  man  who  is  unable  to  hold 
any  other  position.  If  he  has  still  good  eyesight  to  see 
the  dust  on  the  furniture,  and  if  he  is  not  too  childish  to 
get  along  with  teachers  and  pupils,  the  district  is  fortu- 
nate. However,  this  is  the  extreme  case.  Usually,  if  a 


30        MANUAL  FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

just  wage  is  offered  and  some  discernment  used  on  the 
part  of  the  "Board",  a  fairly  good  candidate  may  be 
selected. 

What  characteristics  should  a  candidate  have  to  en- 
title him  to  the  position  of  janitor  of  a  school?  Evi- 
dently a  main  qualification  is  ordinary  intelligence.  Given 
this  and  age  between  twenty-one  and  sixty,  with  good 
physique,  the  candidate  is  worth  consideration.  He 
should,  of  course,  be  of  good  moral  character  and  be 
trustworthy.  He  should  not  indulge  in  grossly  bad 
habits  and  should  refrain  from  bad  language  about 
the  building.  If  he  is  a  non-user  of  tobacco  all 
the  better,  although  this  habit  need  not  disqualify  a 
candidate.  He  should  not,  at  least,  indulge  in  this  or 
any  other  bad  habit  in  the  presence  of  the  pupils.  In 
addition,  he  should  be  reasonably  adapted  to  getting 
along  with  children.  If  he  has  mechanical  ability  and 
ingenuity  it  will  be  an  advantage. 

The  janitor,  although  different  in  his  position  in  the 
school  from  the  teachers,  should  be  under  direction  of 
the  superintendent  in  his  regular  duties  about  the  school 
building.  Extra  duties,  such  as  repair  work,  may  better 
be  under  direction  of  the  chairman  of  the  Committee  on 
Buildings  and  Grounds.  It  is  better  that  teachers  do 
not  attempt  the  direction  of  the  janitor,  but  refer  such 
matters  to  the  superintendent  or  to  the  principal  of  the 
building. 

Shall  the  janitor  assume  authority  over  pupils  about 
the  building,  or  be  required  to  assume  disciplinary  powers 
at  all?  Usually  it  rs  better  if  the 'janitor  is  freed  from  all 
such  authority  and  responsibility.  He  should,  however, 
be  allowed  authority  before  and  after  school,  when  the 
teachers  are  not  present.  Many  schools  require  the 
janitor  to  remain  at  the  building  as  a  disciplinary 
measure  while  teachers  are  home  for  lunch.  In  such 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS        31 

case  he  should  have  full  authority  over  pupils  except  the 
authority  to  punish.  This  should  never  be  granted  a 
janitor,  but  he  should  report  to  the  principal  or  the 
superintendent  all  violations  of  the  rules  of  the  school,  or 
offences  in  the  matter  of  discipline.  All  duties  of  the 
janitor,  aside  from  his  regular  duties  in  taking  care  of 
the  building  and  grounds,  should  be  clearly  understood 
in  advance  and  stated  in  the  contract. 

What  are  the  regular  duties  of  a  janitor?  In  general 
terms  they  consist  of  care  of  buildings  and  grounds,  such 
as  shoveling  snow  from  walks  or  mowing  the  campus, 
heating  the  buildings,  sweeping,  dusting,  etc.  He  should 
take  personal  charge  of  the  temperature  of  each  room 
and  should  inspect  the  rooms  occasionally  each  day  to 
see  that  the  heating  and  ventilating  are  effective.  .  The 
rooms  should  be  swept  each  evening  and  dusted  each 
morning,  including  desks,  furniture  and  woodwork. 
Each  Friday  evening,  and  more  often  if  necessary,  the 
blackboards  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned,  as  also  should 
the  erasers.  Chalk  trays  should  be  cleaned  each  evening. 
Boards  may  be  cleaned  by  means  of  a  large,  heavy  woolen 
dry  cloth  or  a  cloth  slightly  dampened.  It  is  not  good 
for  some  blackboards  to  wash  them  with  water  or  with  ah 
oiled  cloth. 

Once  per  month  or  oftener  floors  should  be  scrubbed, 
unless  the  floors  are  well  oiled.  In  that  case  a  thorough 
wiping  occasionally  with  a  slightly  dampened  mop  will 
suffice.  All  parts  of  the  building  should  be  kept  neat  and 
tidy.  Ordinary  adjustments  or  slight  repairs  should  be 
the  work  of  the  janitor.  Cupboards  and  other  storage 
places  should  be  kept  tidy.  Often  debris  is  allowed  to 
collect  in  recesses  about  the  building,  and  especially 
under  stairways.  Besides  giving  the  building  a  slovenly 
appearance  this  makes  an  especially  dangerous  fire 
hazard. 


32         MANUAL   FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

In  general,  the  janitor  has  the  custody  of  buildings  at 
all  times,  both  out  of  and  in  school  hours.  He  should 
be  furnished  with  keys  to  all  rooms  and  should  see  that 
the  building  is  properly  closed,  doors  locked  and  windows 
fastened  each  night  before  leaving  the  grounds.  He  may 
be  expected  to  open  and  close  the  buildings  for  evening 
use  occasionally,  although  if  such  calls  be  frequent  justice 
would  dictate  that  he  receive  extra  compensation  for 
this  work.  It  is  usually  better  that  only  the  janitor,  the 
principal  and  the  superintendent  have  keys  to  the  build- 
ing. Responsibility  should  not  be  too  much  scattered. 

Some  "Boards"  employ  a  janitor  for  part  time  or  for 
full  time  to  care  for  the  buildings  during  the  summer  va- 
cation, and  to  make  needed  repairs.  This  is  both  com- 
mendable  and  an  economy.  It  is  much  less  expensive 
to  repair  buildings  each  year,  repaint,  redecorate,  etc., 
than  to  neglect  such  for  several  years.  Flower  plots 
may  thus  be  kept  up,  the  lawn  regularly  trimmed,  play- 
grounds and  gymnasiums  rendered  usable  the  year 'round. 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS        33 

CHAPTER  IV 
Material  Equipment 

Next  to  the  importance  of  the  teacher  as  a  factor  in 
education  is  sufficient  and  proper  equipment.  In  the 
broad  sense  this  includes  grounds  and  buildings  as  well 
as  library,  apparatus,  etc.  Of  course,  these  usually  are 
out  of  control  of  bofh  superintendent  and  Board  of  Edu- 
cation, but  they  are  discussed  here  for  the  reason  that  in 
building  and  in  remodeling  they  are  largely  controllable. 

The  School  Site.  The  selection  of  a  site  for  a  school 
is  important,  and  the  following  matters  should  be  con- 
sidered : 

1.  A  fairly  level  or  slightly  rolling  ground,  but  not  a 
low  or  swampy  ground. 

2.  Convenient  to  the  center  of  school  population  or 
district,  so  as  to  equalize  distance  for  pupils.     This  is 
especially  important  where  smaller  children  attend. 

3.  Location  not  to  be  too  near  noisy  thoroughfare  nor 
railway  stations,  etc.     It  is  also  better  if  the  site  is  not 
on  a  street  much  used  for  traffic. 

4.  A  site  that  will   render  the  building  usuable  for 
social  center  purposes.     In  the  past,  school  sites  have 
been  chosen  a  considerable  distance  from  the  business 
district,  but  as  the  building  is  now  used  for  so  many 
social  purposes  and  in  the  evening  as  well,  it  is  better 
if  it  be  near  the  center  of  the  district. 

Grounds.  The  ordinary  school  ground  is  much  too 
small  for  recreation  purposes.  The  newer  schools  being 
built,  such  as  the  rural  consolidated  schools,  provide  more 
space,  usually  about  five  acres.  Some  of  this  is  intended 
for  agriculture  plot  rather  than  for  recreation.  Some 


34        MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

city  schools  are  now  requiring  for  playground  purposes 
a  whole  block  for  each  building. 

For  grade  pupils,  where  games  requiring  large 
grounds  are  not  played,  it  is  considered  that  thirty  square 
feet  of  ground  space  per  pupil  is  sufficient.  This,  of 
course,  should  be  exclusive  of  grounds  used  for  walks, 
flower  beds,  etc.  This  would  approximate  nine  pupils 
per  square  rod  of  space,  or  eleven  square  rods  for  one 
hundred  pupils.  It  must  be  remembered  that  this  should 
be  the  minimum.  No  definite  rule  can  be  given  as  to  how 
much  outside  space  should  be  provided,  as  the  space 
depends  upon  the  enrollment,  the  size  and  nature  of 
pupils,  and  the  kind  of  games  to  be  played.  A  high 
school  needs  larger  grounds  per  enrollment  than*  the 
grades,  because  of  the  type  of  games  needing  more  space. 

A  visit  to  many  schools  will  find  a  dearth  of  play- 
ground equipment.  On  some  school  grounds  no  attempt 
has  been  made  to  provide  equipment  for  play  or  games. 
Where  such  equipment  is  found  it  is  often  of  such  nature 
that  it  can  be  used  by  the  high  school  and  grammar 
school  pupils  only.  The  needs  of  the  smaller  pupils  are 
thus  ignored,  yet  the  need  for  play  apparatus  for  smaller 
pupils  is  more  apparent  than  for  the  larger  ones.  Some 
schools  are  now  providing  simple  equipment,  such  as 
sand-piles,  swings,  teeter-boards,  turning-poles,  and  even 
slides  and  giant  strides.  Most  of  these  are  simple  and 
inexpensive  and  may  be  made  by  the  janitor,  or  even  be 
made  by  the  boys  in  the  Manual  Training  shop.  Ropes, 
poles,  planks,  gas  pipe  and  ingenuity  are  all  that  are 
necessary  to  accomplish  this.  Some  commercial  firms 
are  now  providing  excellent  playground  equipment,  and 
at  reasonable  price. 

Buildings.  In  the  construction  of  buildings  the 
tendency  at  present  is  to  make  them  utilitarian  rather 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS        35 

than  ornamental.  The  buildings,  both  on  the  exterior 
and  in  the  interior,  are  simple.  The  square  or  the  rec- 
tangular buildings  are  the  prevailing  type,  while  the  flat 
roof  usually  obtains.  The  buildings  are  ordinarily  two 
stories  high  above  the  basement  room.  The  basement 
room  is  used  for  furnace  room,  gymnasium  and  vocational 
shops.  In  a  combination  building  the  elementary  grades 
occupy  the  main  floor,  while  the  upper  floor  is  given  over 
to  the  high  school. 

The  better  types  of  building  now  being  constructed 
are  fire-proof  or  semi-fire-proof,  and  contain  lavatories, 
sanitary  flush  toilets,  and  drinking  fountains  with  some 
form  of  bubbler.  Cloakrooms  are  of  course  provided,  and 
in  some  buildings  individual  steel  lockers  are  installed, 
especially  for  high  school  and  grammar  school  students. 
While  corridors  are  convenient,  some  schools  save 
expense  in  construction  by  having  small  landings  only 
and  using  all  other  space  for  rooms.  There  should  always 
be  separate  cloakrooms  or  corridor  space  for  lockers,  as 
it  is  most  unsanitary  to  allow  wraps  to  hang  in  a  class- 
room where  pupils  are  seated.  Where  possible  there 
should  be  separate  cloakrooms  for  boys  and  girls,  espe- 
cially in  the  upper  grades  and  the  high  school. 

For  class  rooms,  light  should  enter  from  above  or  from 
one  side  of  the  room  only,  and  window  space  should,  in 
general,  be  one-fifth  the  floor  space  of  the  room.  The  win- 
dows should  extend  upward  as  near  the  ceiling  as  pos- 
sible. Light  colored  window  shades  are  preferred.  Each 
classroom  should  contain  fifteen  square  feet  of  floor  space 
per  pupil  and  two  hundred  cubic  feet  of  air  space  per 
pupil.  The  height  of  the  room  ranges  from  twelve  feet 
to  fourteen  feet.  No  grade  room,  it  is  considered,  should 
enroll  more  than  forty  pupils,  although  some  consider  it 
wise  for  each  room  to  have  a  capacity  of  forty-eight 
pupils,  to  meet  emergencies  which  may  occur.  The  ideal 


36        MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

number  in  a  grade  room  for  one  teacher  is  twenty-four 
to  thirty-six  pupils.  In  constructing  a  building  the  dimen- 
sions of  classrooms  should  correspond  to  maximum  num- 
ber of  pupils  to  be  accommodated.  In  his  book,  "School 
Architecture,"  Mr.  George  Bruce  gives  as  suggestive  sizes 
of  class  rooms : 

24x28  feet,  6  rows  of  six   each,  36  pupils. 

22x32  feet,  8  rows  of  five  each,  40  pupils. 

24x32  feet,  8  rows  of  six  each,  48  pupils. 
In  each  classroom  and  each  recitation  room  there 
should  be  ample  blackboard  space ;  in  recitation  room  for 
all  pupils  in  the  class  to  work  at  once  is  ideal,  while  in 
grade  rooms  space  for  one-half  the  pupils,  or  one  section, 
is  sufficient.  It  is  usually  not  desirable  to  place  a  black- 
board in  the  rear  of  the  room.  In  Primary  and  Inter- 
mediate rooms  the  blackboard  should  be  placed  twenty-six 
to  twenty-eight  inches  from  the  floor,  while  in  Grammar 
room  and  High  School  room  from  twenty-eight  to  thirty- 
two  inches.  The  usual  width  of  blackboard  is  four  feet, 
but  in  Primary  and  Intermediate  rooms  forty  to  forty- 
four  inches  is  sufficient.  Many  schools  place  above  the 
blackboard  in  these  rooms  an  eighteen-inch  strip  of  burlap 
for  convenience  of  the  teacher  in  displaying  regular  and 
special  work.  Three  types  of  blackboard  are  used,  natu- 
ral slate,  liquid  slating  or  paint  on  the  plastering,  and  the 
woodpulp  board. 

Most  modern  school  buildings  are  provided  with  a 
gymnasium.  This  is  deemed  necessary  because  much  of 
the  school  year  weather  conditions  prevent  games  and 
exercises  on  the  school  ground.  The  gymnasium  usually 
occupies  basement  space.  The  gymnasium,  to  be  suitable 
for  various  inside  games,  should  be  in  dimensions  as  fol- 
lows:  Length,  66  to  70  feet;  width,  30  to  40  feet,  and 
height  16  to  18  feet.  It  is  desirable  to  provide  suitable 
space  for  spectators,  also.  The  gymnasium  should  be 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS        37 

made  available  at  different  periods  in  the  week  to  differ- 
ent groups  of  pupils  and  not  used  simply  for  team-work 
for  a  small  group  of  students.  It  may  well  be  used  in  the 
evening  for  community  recreation. 

In  every  school  building  constructed  some  provision 
should  be  made  for  an  auditorium.  This  may  be  used 
by  the  school  for  rehearsals,  for  school  programs,  etc. 
The  auditorium  is  also  a  valuable  asset  to  the  community 
for  neighborhood  or  community  meetings  of  various 
kinds.  If  a  separate  auditorium  cannot  be  provided,  the 
high  school  assembly  may  be  so  arranged  as  to  answer 
this  need,  or  the  gymnasium  may  be  used.  In  either 
case  a  stage  or  suitable  rostrum  should  be  a  feature  of  the 
auditorium,  and  suitable  seating  be  provided. 

Every  school  employing  four  or  more  teachers  should 
have  a  small  room,  suitably  located,  to  be  used  as  an 
office.  This  should  be  provided  with  an  office  desk,  a 
filing  case,  several  chairs  and  a  safe  or  fire-proof  vault 
for  keeping  of  records  and  other  important  papers.  The 
office  is  necessary  for  the  superintendent,  as  it  provides 
a  place  for  him  in  which  to  hold  conferences  with  pupils, 
teachers  and  parents.  A  rest  room,  or  emergency  room, 
is  also  desirable,  where  sick  pupils  or  teachers  may  be 
accommodated. 

Methods  of  Heating.  The  method  of  heating  should 
receive  serious  consideration  in  the  construction  of  a 
school  plant.  Aside  from  the  system  of  heating,  the  ade- 
quacy of  the  heating  plant  is  important.  Some  schools 
have  installed  plants  too  small  to  do  the  work  without 
crowding  the  furnace.  It  is  usually  considered  by  janitors 
that  a  heating  plant  barely  large  enough  to  heat  a  build- 
ing will,  by  consequent  necessary  crowding,  consume 
more  fuel  and  with  less  satisfactory  results  than  a  heating 
plarit  a  size  too  large.  The  methods  of  heating  a  school 


38         MANUAL   FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

building  are  stove,  hot-air  furnace,  steam,  vapor  and  hot- 
water.  The  stove  is  not  advisable  except  in  one-room 
buildings,  and  when  used  should  always  be  surrounded 
by  a  jacket.  The  hot-air  furnace  is  used  in  but  few 
buildings  and  is  usually  unsatisfactory.  In  a  small  build- 
ing the  results  are  better  than  in  a  large  building.  Steam 
is  the  prevailing  method  of  heating  school  buildings  and 
is  usually  found  satisfactory.  To  be  most  effective,  this 
system  should  provide  small  return  pipes  from  the  radia- 
tor to  the  boiler.  When  the  fan  system  of  ventilation 
is  used  this  is  a  strong  aid  to  the  heating  of  schoolrooms 
and  in  moderate  weather  is  sufficient  for  heating  alone 
The  principle  of  this  is  to  force  into  each  room  air  pre- 
viously warmed  by  passing  over  hot  coils. 

Methods  of  Ventilation.  The  most  simple  method 
of  ventilation  is  by  open  windows  and  open  doors.  In 
mild  weather  this  method  is  also  probably  the  best  one. 
In  severe  weather  it  is  fraught  with  much  danger  to  the 
health  of  pupils  and  teacher.  Where  it  must  be  used, 
some  simple  devices  are  an  aid.  One  or  more  windows 
may  be  lowered  a  few  inches  from  the  top.  If  a  canvas 
strip  eight  inches  wide  be  tacked  to  the  top  of  the  window 
sash  and  to  the  top  of  the  window  casing  the  upper  sash 
may  safely  be  dropped  eight  inches.  When  it  is  so 
dropped  the  canvas  becomes  stretched  across  the  opening 
and  prevents  direct  draft  from  the  wind.  A  board  six 
inches  in  width  may  be  fitted  under  the  lower  sash,  in 
order  to  allow  some  fresh  air  to  enter  the  room  at  the 
middle  of  the  window  between  the  sashes.  Again,  a  small 
frame  across  which  is  stretched  canvas  or  cheesecloth 
may  be  inserted  under  the  lower  sash. 

The  gravity  system  is  quite  effective  and  this  means 
of  ventilation  is  often  used.  Fresh  air  from  out  of  doors 
is  admitted  in  the  upper  part  of  the  inner  wall  by  means 


MANUAL   FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS        39 

of  a  duct.  The  air  is  often  first  warmed  by  passing  over 
heated  coils.  The  success  of  this  method  depends  upon 
the  outlet  of  the  impure  air  through  another  duct,  so 
as  to  complete  the  circulation.  An  exhaust  duct  begins 
in  an  opening  in  the  floor  or  near  the  lower  part  of  the 
inner  wall  of  each  room  and  extends  upward  through  the 
roof  of  the  building.  If  this  duct  leads  upward  close 
beside  the  furnace  chimney  the  circulation  is  increased 
by  heating  the  exhaust  air.  Sometimes  this  exhaust 
chamber  contains  a  small  radiator  heated  by  steam  from 
the  boiler,  a  plan  which  is  still  more  effective.  The  fan 
system  described  in  another  paragraph,  while  the  most 
expensive  to  install,  is  usually  considered  by  far  the 
best  system  of  ventilation  for  school  buildings.  There  is 
now  on  the  market  a  unit  system  of  ventilation  for  each 
room  similar  in  operation  to  the  fan  system,  but  this 
has  not  as  yet  come  into  extensive  use.  In  the  matter  of 
ventilation  two  things  should  be  kept  in  mind,  namely, 
that  each  pupil  in  the  room  is  entitled  to  200  cubic  feet 
of  air  space,  and  that  this  air  should  be  changed  at  the 
rate  of  a  complete  change  of  air  in  the  room  every  eight 
minutes.  In  each  grade  room  or  class  room,  a  ther- 
mometer should  be  provided.  Remember  that  for  cor- 
rect registration  this  should  hang  on  a  level  with  the 
bodies  of  pupils  when  they  are  seated  at  their  desks.  The 
thermometer  should  register  from  sixty-eight  to  seventy 
degrees  Fahrenheit. 

Shops  and  Laboratories.  The  modern  school  requires 
facilities  for  vocational  work  and  for  experimental  work 
in  Science.  When  such  work  can  have  separate  rooms 
it  is  better.  The  Manual  Training  room  usually  occupies 
space  in  the  basement.  The  room  should  be  well  lighted 
and  sufficiently  heated,  and  should  contain  a  proper  num- 
ber of  benches  for  the  pupils  to  be  accommodated.  Regu- 


40        MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

lar  commercial  Manual  Training  benches,  single  or 
double,  and  containing  drawers,  are  better,  although  a  reg- 
ular carpenter's  workbench  may  be  used.  There  should  be 
a  chest,  a  case  or  a  cage  in  which  the  tools  may  be  kept 
locked.  These  should  be  in  charge  of  the  instructor  and 
kept  under  lock  when  not  in  use.  The  janitor  should 
not  have  access  to  these  tools  for  work  about  the  building 
but  should  be  provided  with  separate  tools  for  such  work. 
There  should  be  a  general  set  of  tools  furnished  and  also 
individual  tools  for  each  bench,  of  those  tools  more  often 
used.  A  small  blackboard  may  be  provided  for  drawings, 
outlines,  etc.  If  a  separate  lumber  room  is  not  possible, 
racks  should  be  provided  for  lumber  in  the  shop.  It  is 
well  if  a  separate  staining  room  be  provided. 

The  Domestic  Science  kitchen  is  often  located  in  the 
basement,  although  an  upper  available  room  is  preferable. 
The  room  should  be  light,  warm  and  well  ventilated. 
Although  long  tables  are  sometimes  used,  regular  indi- 
vidual Domestic  Science  tables  are  to  be  preferred.  These 
should  contain  drawers  for  silverware,  etc.  A  pantry  or 
cupboard  should  be  provided  for  storing  general  cooking 
utensils,  and  a  refrigerator  in  the  room  is  a  convenience. 
Several  plans  of  heating  are  used  for  the  cooking  classes. 
Simple  oil  burners  are  sometimes  used,  but  gasoline 
stoves  should  never  be  used,  on  account  of  the  fire  hazard. 
Special  gas  plants  are  sometimes  installed  in  the  building, 
and  gas  plates  used.  Blow  gas  is  sometimes  used  instead. 
Where  city  gas  is  available  this  is  generally  used.  Where 
the  building  is  electrically  wired  and  day  current  is  avail- 
able, electric  stoves  may  be  used,  and  these  are  being 
installed  in  many  schools.  Some  few  of  the  schools  use 
a  coal  or  a  wood  range.  Whatever  system  of  heating  is 
used,  a  burner  should  be  provided  for  every  two  girls  in 
the  class,  besides  an  adequate  number  of  ovens.  For  the 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS        41 

Sewing  class  one  or  more  sewing  machines  should  be 
provided. 

Science  laboratories  may  preferably  have  separate 
rooms,  but  a  regular  recitation  room  may  be  utilized. 
The  room  should  be  especially  well  lighted  and  be  pro- 
vided with  tables  or  suitable  high  benches.  If  possible 
there  should  be  running  water  in  the  room  and  gas  heat 
or  some  other  heating  device.  When  necessary,  alcohol 
lamps  may  be  used.  In  small  buildings  where  room  is 
scarce  the  Domestic  Science  room  may  be  utilized  for 
Science  work.  There  should  be  a  separate  case  for  labora- 
tory apparatus,  and  this  should  be  kept  locked  when  not 
in  use.  The  Science  equipment  should  be  of  the  best 
quality  and  of  wide  enough  range  to  perform  the  neces- 
sary experiments.  Some  utensils  should  be  supplied  in 
sufficient  quantities  so  that  not  more  than  two  students 
need  to  work  together. 

Library.  Two  classes  of  books  may  be  included  in 
the  library,  reading  books,  or  fiction,  and  reference  books. 
The  latter  is  more  important  for  school  purposes,  but 
when  there  is  no  local  public  library  available  the  former 
is  also  desirable.  When  these  cannot  be  procured,  how- 
ever, the  school  may  usually  get  free  use  of  some  travel- 
ing library. 

The  reference  library  has  in  the  past  been  deemed 
necessary  only  for  the  High  School,  but  opinion  is  rapidly 
favoring  also  a  reference  library  for  the  Grammar  School, 
and  even  for  the  Intermediate  grades.  The  nature  of 
books  chosen  would,  of  course,  be  different  in  different 
departments.  In  general  we  can  say  that  there  should 
be  a  complete  dictionary  in  each  department,  and  in  the 
high  school  of  fifty  pupils  there  should  be  two  such  dic- 
tionaries. In  the  Intermediate  department  there  ought 
also  to  be  for  each  room  several  briefer  dictionaries.  For 


42        MANUAL  FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

all  these  departments  it  is  well  if  each  pupil  may  have 
his  individual  "Student's  Dictionary"  at  his  desk.  The 
High  School  usually  has  one  of  the  best,  modern,  com- 
prehensive encyclopedia  sets.  Where  the  High  School 
is  large,  more  than  one  may  be  necessary.  The  Grammar 
School  should  have  a  briefer  cyclopedia,  a  good,  modern 
set  of  from  five  to  twelve  volumes.  A  world  atlas  should 
be  in  both  the  Grammar  School  and  the  High  School. 

Reference  books  should  be  along  the  line  of  sub- 
jects pursued  and  plentiful  enough  not  to  hamper  the 
work.  Only  authentic  reference  books  are  worth  pro- 
curing. All  books  and  book  shelves  should  be  properly 
labeled  and  a  classified  list  of  the  books  kept.  It  is  well 
if  a  reasonable  fund  is  available  to  superintendent  and 
teachers  each  year  for  purchase  of  new  and  necessary 
books.  All  library  books  should,  of  course,  be  kept  in 
a  suitable  case  or  cupboard,  and  a  certain  teacher  be  given 
charge  of  the  library  and  held  responsible  for  its  proper 
care. 

In  choosing  reference  books  it  is  usually  better  not 
to  expend  funds  for  extensive  sets  along  certain  lines, 
such  as  a  twenty  volume  set  in  History,  a  twenty-five 
volume  set  in  Literature,  or  complete  sets  of  works  of  an 
author.  The  authorship  of  these  are  apt  to  be  unsatis- 
factory, and  it  is  usual  that  in  such  purchase  only  a  'few 
volumes  of  the  set  will  ever  be  needed  or  used  by  the 
school.  Single  volumes  or  small  sets  are  of  more  service 
to  schools.  This,  of  course,  does  not  apply  to  the  pur- 
chase of  a  general  encyclopedia. 

Other  Equipment.  Certain  other  equipment  is  neces- 
sary in  every  well  organized  school.  There  should  be  a 
set  of  Political  Geography  maps  for  each  building,  so 
arranged  that  they  may  readily  be  removed  to  any  room. 
A  world  globe  from  twelve  to  eighteen  inches  in  diameter 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS        43 

should  be  in  every  building.  If  this  is  a  globe  suspended 
from  the  ceiling,  extra  cords  and  pulleys  may  be  supplied 
to  the  various  rooms  so  that  the  globe  can  be  easily  taken 
from  one  room  to  another.  A  chart  to  illustrate  Physi- 
ology and  Hygiene  should  be  provided,  and  sets  of  His- 
tory maps  or  charts  for  each  department  of  History 
taught.  Many  schools  provide  also  a  Nature  Study  chart 
and  an  Agriculture  chart.  Reading  and  Phonic  charts 
are  necessary  for  the  Primary  room  and  a  sand  table  is 
valuable.  Some  schools  provide  relief  maps.  Visual 
instruction  is  coming  to  have  a  place  in  the  better  class 
of  schools  and  constitutes  a  distinct  aid  in  school  work. 
This  takes  three  forms,  the  stereoscope  and  stereographs, 
the  lantern  and  slides,  and  the  moving-picture  machine 
and  the  film.  Some  musical  instrument  ought  to  be  pro- 
vided in  each  building  and  it  is,  of  course,  better  to  have 
an  instrument  in  each  room.  The  piano  is  usually  con- 
sidered better  for  all  departments,  but  the  phonograph 
is  more  often  used  in  the  grades,  both  for  reasons  of 
economy  and  because  it  can  easily  be  moved  from  room 
to  room. 

School  Furniture.  School  furniture  consists  of  tables, 
bookcases,  teacher's  desk  and  pupils'  desks,  besides  all 
other  stationary  articles.  Wall  pictures  and  clocks  may 
be  included  in  the  term. 

School  desks  may  be  classified  as  adjustable  and  non- 
adjustable.  The  former  are  made  in  two  styles,  the  seat 
and  desk  separate  and  the  seat  and  the  desk  combined. 
A  new  desk  being  introduced  is  a  combined  seat  and  desk 
which  is  so  constructed  that  it  does  not  need  to  be  fast- 
ened to  the  floor.  The  adjustable  seats  are  of  course  more 
hygienic,  and  are  rapidly  displacing  the  old  type  desk. 
The  movable  desk  mentioned  is  convenient  especially 


44        MANUAL   FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

for  the  Primary  room,  and  for  other  rooms  where  floor 
space  is  occasionally  needed  for  games,  etc. 

The  flat-top  desk  for  teachers  is  preferable,  and  it 
should  contain  plenty  of  drawers  with  lock  and  key.  For 
the  superintendent's  office  a  roller-top  desk  is  more  con- 
venient. A  file  case  should  also  be  provided  in  the  office. 
Each  classroom  should  contain  a  chair  with  arm  sup- 
ports for  the  teacher's  use,  and  several  chairs  for  visitors. 
Where  space  is  meager,  folding  chairs  are  a  convenience. 
There  should  be  several  chairs  in  the  office. 

It  is  well  to  have  a  good-sized  clock  in  each  room,  so 
placed  that  pupils  may  readily  see  it.  A  few  well  chosen 
framed  pictures  should  hang  on  the  wall.  These  should 
be  of  a  type  to  appeal  to  the  age  of  the  pupils  in  the 
room,  and  be  the  work  of  standard  artists.  The  pictures 
should  not  in  general  be  duplicated  in  the  different  rooms 
although  certain  pictures,  such  as  those  of  Washington 
and  Lincoln,  may  well  be  duplicated  in  various  rooms. 
The  ideal  plan  for  providing  pictures  for  school  rooms  is 
to  have  them  graded  so  that  the  various  departments  will 
have  pictures  particularly  adapted  to  the  interests  of 
children  in  the  department,  and  at  the  same  time  to  have 
the  range  as  a  whole  extensive  enough  to  be  representa- 
tive of  the  various  subjects  and  of  the  works  of  the  lead- 
ing artists. 

There  ought  to  be  at  least  one  good  enclosed  book- 
case in  each  room,  and  more  if  necessary.  These  are 
better  if  built  into  the  walls.  Glass  doors  are  preferable 
and  sliding  doors  are  better  than  swinging  doors.  Book- 
cases should  be  provided  with  lock  and  key. 

Working  Material.  Besides  furnishing  general  equip- 
ment, districts  are  gradually  more  and  more  furnishing 
working  material  for  pupils.  Of  course,  schools  have 
always  furnished  blackboard  crayons,  and  usually  exami- 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS        45 

nation  paper.  Some  schools  are  now  furnishing  theme 
paper  and  Penmanship  practice  paper.  Some  schools 
also  furnish,  free  to  the  pupils,  pens  and  ink  and  Primary 
lead  pencils  and  drawing  pencils.  Often  Drawing  ma- 
terials are  furnished.  Construction  paper  is  usually  free 
to  Kindergarten  and  Primary  pupils. 

It  is  customary  for  Manual  Training  students  to 
pay  for  lumber  and  stains  used  to  construct  articles  for 
their  own  use.  Girls  in  the  Domestic  Science  classes  usu- 
ally furnish  material  for  the  sewing,  while  the  district 
furnishes  material  for  the  cooking  lessons.  Sometimes 
products  of  cooking  lessons  are  sold  to  partially  reimburse 
the  district  for  the  expense  of  materials.  A  few  schools 
charge  a  laboratory  fee  to  students  using  the  Science 
laboratory,  to  pay  for  chemicals,  breakage,  etc. 

It  is  usual  in  most  states  and  districts  to  require  pupils 
to  furnish  their  own  regular  texts.  A  few  states,  however, 
require  the  districts  to  furnish  free  texts  for  use  of  pupils. 
In  some  other  states  this  is  optional  with  each  individual 
district.  When  the  pupils  furnish  their  own  texts  it  is 
quite  general  for  the  district  to  furnish  supplementary 
reading  texts  and  all  other  reference  books  needed.  Sets 
of  song  books  are  by  many  districts  furnished  for  Music 
work.  There  seems  to  be  a  growing  disposition  for 
schools  to  furnish  more  working  material  and  pupils  to 
furnish  less. 

Of  course,  schools  should  furnish  to  teachers  the  neces- 
sary daily  registers  and  other  record  books  for  the  school. 
These  should  include  daily  class  record  books,  plan  books, 
etc.,  also  desk  copies  of  texts  they  are  required  to  teach. 
These  are,  of  course,  labeled  as  property  of  the  school 
and  are  not  the  property  of  the  teachers. 

The  providing  of  material  of  various  kinds  necessitates 
proper  facilities  for  storing  the  material.  There  should 
be  some  organized  method,  also,  of  keeping  a  check  on 


46        MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

its  use.  Teachers  should  be  held  responsible  for  the 
proper  distribution  and  use  of  materials  and  for  proper 
care  of  accessory  helps  of  all  kinds.  Some  schools  require 
teachers  and  principals  to  invoice  articles  and  materials 
both  at  the  beginning  and  at  the  close  of  the  school  year. 

Before  closing  this  chapter  a  word  of  caution  ought 
to  be  given  school  officials  and  administrators.  When 
expensive  apparatus  and  material  are  purchased  they 
should  be  made  available  to  the  pupils  and  be  used  as 
occasion  requires.  The  superintendent  should  see  that 
each  teacher  knows  what  is  available  in  the  building,  and 
in  supervision  should  observe  whether  it  is  properly 
utilized.  Boards  of  Education  are  usually  willing  to  fur- 
nish necessary  material  for  the  school.  When  they  do 
so  they  have  a  right  to  expect  that  it  be  used.  Both 
superintendent  and  teachers  are  sometimes  at  fault  in 
this  matter.  It  is  well  for  the  superintendent  to  place 
in  the  hands  of  each  teacher  and  each  principal  a  printed 
list  of  equipment  and  material  available  for  use. 

A  word  of  warning  also  may  not  be  out  of  place  in 
regard  to  the  purchase  of  equipment  for  schools.  Irre- 
sponsible sales  agents  often  solicit  school  officials  for 
the  purchase  of  articles  that  appear  valuable  but  that 
are  both  unnecessary  and  impractical  in  the  classroom. 
In  such  cases  it  is  well  to  consult  those  in  a  position  to 
know  better  concerning  these  matters. 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS        47 

CHAPTER  V 
Building  a  Course  of  Study 

Purpose  of  a  Definite  Course.  It  is  plain  that  every 
well  organized  school  should  have  a  definite  course  of 
study,  and  for  the  following  reasons : 

1.  That  there  may  be  a  definite  goal  for  the  work  of 
each  teacher,  and  for  the  school  as  a  whole. 

2.  That  each  teacher  may  know  the  portion  of  the  work 
for  which  she  is  responsible,  and  know  also  the  work  the 
other  teachers  are  doing. 

3.  That  the  work  may  be  the  better  correlated. 

4.  To  prevent  frequent  modifications  by  teachers  who 
prefer  certain  subjects  or  certain  phases  of  the  work,  and 
hence  might  otherwise  overstress  them. 

5.  That  the  work  of  the  school  may  co-ordinate  closely 
with  that  of  other  schools  so  that  pupils  transferring  from 
one  school  to  another  may  continue  their  work  without 
loss  or  interruption. 

6.  So  as  to  make  possible  a  graded  system. 

Who  Is  Responsible  for  the  Course  of  Study.  Pri- 
marily the  Board  of  Education  is  responsible  for  shaping 
the  course,  and  no  course  should  be  made  or  modified 
without  its  being  submitted  to  the  "Board"  for  approval. 
If  the  school  is  a  standard  school,  ranked  as  such  by 
county  or  state  authorities,  the  course  should  be  sub- 
mitted, also,  to  such  authorities  for  approval. 

The  framing  or  modifying  of  a  course  of  study  is  actu- 
ally accomplished,  however,  by  superintendent,  principals 
and  teachers.  A  wise  superintendent  will  always  consult 
principals  and  teachers,  or  in  a  large  system  representa- 
tives from  such,  when  making  or  changing  a  course  of 
study.  Incidentally  it  should  be  noted  that  frequent 


48         MANUAL  FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

changes  are  detrimental  to  the  work ;  changes  should  not 
be  made  on  whims,  but  should  be  backed  by  logical 
reasons. 

The  Course  of  Study  a  Tradition.  It  is  often  criticised 
that  the  course  of  study  is  a  tradition.  This  may  be, 
however,  a  compliment  rather  than  a  criticism.  The  finest 
things  in  our  civilization  are  traditional,  and  things 
traditional  were  first  backed  by  good  reason  and  have 
stood  the  test  of  time.  This,  however,  does  not  argue 
that  we  must  always  cling  to  old  traditions.  We  may 
wisely,  at  times,  establish  new  methods  or  new  systems 
that  in  future  time  may  themselves  become  valuable  tra- 
ditions. Experience  in  education  has  proven  that  each 
new  age  places  emphasis  on  different  phases  of  educa- 
tion, on  different  subject  matter  and  on  different  methods. 
No  course  of  study  should  be  unchangeable. 

Custom  has  established  as  the  subject  matter  for 
the  eight  elementary  grades  the  so-called  "common 
branches."  These  embrace  in  a  general  way  the  fields 
of  English,  Mathematics,  History,  Science  and  Hand- 
work. Originally  the  English  included  but  oral  Reading, 
Spelling  and  Grammar;  the  Mathematics,  Arithmetic; 
the  History,  United  States  History ;  Science,  the  study 
of  Geography,  and  Handwork,  Penmanship. 

In  more  recent  years  the  elementary  work  has  ex- 
panded to  include  as  follows  :  English — Reading,  oral  and 
silent.  Spelling,  Language  and  Grammar ;  Mathematics — 
Numbers  and  Arithmetic ;  Science — Nature  Study,  Geog- 
raphy, Hygiene  and  Physiology  ;  History — Biography, 
Beginnings  of  American  History  in  Europe,  United  States 
History,  and  Civics ;  Vocational  work  —  Penmanship, 
Manual  Training,  Domestic  Science  and  Handwork;  Art 
— Music  and  Drawing. 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS        49 

The  High  School  course  is  more  recent  in  develop- 
ment. At  present  it  includes  the  fields  of  English,  Mathe- 
matics, Science,  Social  Science,  Vocations,  Commerce  and 
Foreign  Language.  In  Normal  Training  high  schools 
such  subjects  as  Psychology,  Pedagogy  and  Practice 
Teaching  are  offered. 

English  usually  includes  two  years'  work  of  Composi- 
tion and  Rhetoric,  one  year's  work  of  History  of  English 
Literature  and  one  year's  work  of  American  Literature, 
given  in  this  order.  Each  year  some  classics  are  read 
and  some  oral  English  required.  Some  additional  books 
are  also  required  to  be  read  and  reported  by  each  student. 

The  Mathematics  includes  a  year  of  Algebra,  usually 
to  the  subject  of  Quadratics,  a  year  of  Plane  Geometry 
and  a  half  year  of  Arithmetic,  given  in  this  order.  Some 
schools  also  offer  a  half  year  or  a  year  in  the  subject  of 
Bookkeeping.  Certain  schools  in  addition  offer  as  elec- 
tives  a  half  year  in  Advanced  Algebra  and  a  half  year  in 
Solid  Geometry.  Unified  Mathematics  are  sometimes 
used  either  preceding  Algebra  and  Geometry  or  in  lieu 
of  these  subjects. 

Science  usually  includes  a  year  of  General  Science 
work,  a  half  year  or  a  year  of  Agriculture,  a  half  year  of 
advanced  Physiology  and  a  year  of  Physics.  Some 
schools  also  offer  a  half  year  in  Physiography.  In  the 
larger  high  schools  where  subjects  may  be  made  elective, 
where  a  regular  Science  instructor  is  employed  and  where 
a  real  Science  laboratory  may  be  provided,  courses  also 
include  a  half  year  in  Zoology  and  a  half  year  in  Botany, 
or  a  full  year  in  Biology.  A  few  large  systems  of  schools 
also  offer  a  half  year  or  a  year  in  Chemistry. 

The  Social  Science  subjects  include  a  year  in  Ancient 
History,  a  year  in  Mediaeval  and  Modern  History  and  a 
year  in  American  History  and  American  Government, 
given  in  this  order.  The  course  is  now  being  modified 


50        MANUAL   FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

so  as  to  devote  a  year  only  to  Ancient  and  Mediaeval 
History  and  a  full  year  to  Modern  History.  The  tend- 
ency at  present  is  to  reduce  European  History  to  one  year, 
including  the  fields  of  Ancient,  Mediaeval  and  Modern 
History,  the  emphasis  being  on  the  latter.  Text-books 
are  now  published  suitable  for  this  plan.  Schools  able 
to  offer  elective  subjects  sometimes  offer  a  half  year  in 
English  History,  although  a  full  year  offered  in  Modern 
History  makes  this  less  necessary.  A  half  year  in  Eco- 
nomics is  usually  offered,  and  sometimes  a  half  year  in 
Sociology.  Publishers  of  high  school  text-books  are  now 
offering  for  consideration  an  Elementary  Social  Science 
text  designed  for  a  year's  work  in  the  first  year  of  the 
high  school.  Many  schools  also  offer  a  half  year  in  Com- 
munity Civics  in  the  first  year  or  the  second  year  of  the 
high  school. 

.The  vocational  subjects  include  Manual  Training  for 
the  boys  and  Home  Economics  for  the  girls,  -usually  a 
year  of  each.  Agriculture  is  often  named  as  a  vocational 
subject  and  in  some  states  is,  on  that  basis,  legally 
required. 

Regarding  the  vocational  subjects,  these  are  usually 
confined  to  the  Grammar  Department  and  the  High 
School.  Agriculture  is  considered  a  high  school  subject 
and  is  given  as  a  credit  subject  in  either  the  ninth  grade 
or  the  tenth  grade.  It  is  not  usual  to  offer  more  than  one 
year  of  the  subject,  and  the  real  small  high  school  often 
offers  but  a  half  year.  Of  course,  schools  large  enough 
to  offer  several  courses  may  establish  a  distinct  vocational 
course  and  offer  more  work  in  all  these  subjects. 

Commercial  subjects  may  be  included  in  the  term 
"Vocational",  although  they  are  not  usually  so  designated. 
The  subjects  included  are  Bookkeeping,  Commercial 
Arithmetic,  Business  English,  Commercial  Law,  Penman- 
ship, Shorthand  and  Typewriting.  Commercial  courses 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS        51 

in  large  high  schools  sometimes  include  the  subjects  of 
Salesmanship,  Advertising,  Journalism,  etc. 

Foreign  Languages  now  being  offered  are  Latin, 
French  and  Spanish.  Greek,  although  a  language  com- 
mon in  the  college,  is  seldom  offered  in  the  high  school. 
More  often  but  two  years  of  a  foreign  language  are 
offered,  although  schools  able  to  offer  special  courses 
sometimes  offer  four  years  of  such. 

A  number  of  high  schools  are  now  offering  for  credit 
a  semester's  work  or  two  semesters'  work  in  Bible  Study, 
given  as  an  elective.  Both  Vocal  Music  and  Instrumental 
Music  are  sometimes  offered  as  credit  subjects  in  the 
high  school,  the  former  as  glee  club  work  and  the  latter 
as  orchestra  work.  Public  Speaking  as  an  elective  credit 
subject  is  occasionally  offered,  although  this  is  more  often 
linked  up  with  the  last  two  years  of  English  work. 

The  Grade  Course.  Courses  of  study  in  the  grades 
vary  but  little  in  different  schools,  except  that  the  Seventh 
and  the  Eighth  grade  work  is  some  different  when  these 
grades  are  included  in  the  Junior  High  School  or  when 
they  constitute  an  Intermediate  department  in  the  6-2-4 
plan.  In  such  cases  these  grades  cease  to  be  a  part  of  the 
elementary  department  and  become  a  part  of  the  high 
school  department,  with  consequent  changes  in  type  of 
work. 

The  Primary  Course  is  simple,  usually  including  the 
subjects  of  Reading,  Phonics,  Handwork,  Writing,  Story 
Telling  or  Oral  Language,  and  Drawing.  The  Interme- 
diate department  is  more  pretentious  and  has  a  more 
carefully  arranged  course  of  study.  Real  text-book  work 
begins  here.  A  Language  text  is  ordinarily  introduced  a 
year  previously,  however,  beginning  in  the  Third  grade. 
The  Language  series  by  texts  usually  includes  a  three- 
book  series,  Book  One  for  grades  three  and  four,  Book 


52        MANUAL  FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

Two  for  grades  five  and  six,  and  Book  Three  for  grades 
seven  and  eight.  The  latter  text  is  usually  a  Grammar 
text  instead  of  a  Language  text,  or  sometimes  a  combi- 
nation of  the  two.  It  is  customary,  also,  for  a  text  in 
Arithmetic  to  be  introduced  in  the  Third  grade.  Arith- 
metics are  offered  in  two-book  series  or  three-book  series, 
the  field  of  work  carried  in  each  grade  being  the  same 
in  either  case.  The  three-book  series  offers  Book  One 
for  Grades  III  and  IV.  This  text  usually  stresses  the 
"Four  Fundamentals",  simple  problems,  simple  Fractions 
and  simple  Decimals.  Simple  Measurements  also  are 
included.  Book  Two,  designed  for  Grades  V  and  VI, 
covers  the  general  field  of  operations  in  any  Arithmetic, 
so  that  pupils  compelled  to  leave  school  at  the  close  of 
the  sixth  year  will  have  some  knowledge  of  the  various 
phases  of  the  subject.  Book  Three,  for  Grades  VII  and 
VIII,  covers  the  same  field  as  the  previous  text,  but  in  a 
more  comprehensive  way.  The  Seventh  grade  pursues 
the  text  to  the  subject  of  simple  interest,  while  the  Eighth 
grade  completes  the  text. 

Political  Geography  succeeds  Nature  Study  in  the 
course  and  the  text-book  is  usually  first  used  in  the 
Fourth  grade.  Previous  to  this,  local  Geography  and 
drawing  of  simple  maps  may  be  taught.  Geography  texts 
are  usually  of  a  two-book  series ;  Book  One,  designed  for 
Grades  IV  and  V,  and  Book  Two,  designed  for  Grades 
VI  and  VII.  Some  schools  find  it  an  advantage  to  use 
a  simple  Primary  Geography  to  precede  the  Elementary 
Geography,  using  it  in  the  last  half  of  Grade  III  or  the 
first  half  of  Grade  IV.  Each  text  of  the  two-book  series 
covers  the  whole  field  of  Geography,  but  the  last  book 
in  a  more  comprehensive  manner. 

A  Hygiene  text  may  be  introduced  in  the  Fourth 
grade,  although  the  rule  is  not  universal.  This  subject 
is  sometimes  given  by  text  twice  per  day  during  the 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS        53 

fourth  year  and  the  fifth  year.  The  Sixth  grade  may  or 
may  not  require  use  of  text  in  Hygiene,  but  a  Physiology 
text  is  usually  used  in  Grade  VII. 

Formal  History  work  by  text  begins  in  Grade  VI. 
The  first  year  is  devoted  to  simple  United  States  History, 
perhaps  told  biographically.  Many  schools  follow  in 
the  Seventh  grade  with  a  text  on  "Beginnings  of  Ameri- 
can History  in  Europe",  or  "Background  of  American 
History".  This  permits  pupils  who  must  leave  school  at 
the  close  of  the  Sixth  grade  to  get  the  field  of  American 
History,  the  most  important  part.  A  text  in  regular 
American  History  is  usually  studied  in  the  eighth  year, 
as  is  also  a  text  in  American  Government,  for  a  half  year. 

Spelling  by  text  is  usually  scheduled  from  about  the 
Third  grade  to  the  Eighth  grade  inclusive.  Spelling  in 
the  previous  grades  is  often  in  connection  with  Reading 
or  with  Phonics.  Sometimes  Word  Analysis  instead  of 
Spelling  is  given  in  the  Seventh  and  Eighth  grades.  Usu- 
ally Spelling  is  given  daily,  although  in  the  Grammar 
room  it  is  sometimes  alternated  with  Penmanship  or 
some  other  subject. 

Formal  Penmanship  is  conducted  in  all  grades  of  the 
Intermediate  department  and  in  the  Grammar  depart- 
ment, and  sometimes  in  the  Primary  department  as  well. 
In  the  Grammar  department  the  practice  period  is  longer 
and  often  alternates  with  some  other  subject.  Some 
schools  begin  formal  Penmanship  in  the  Third  grade, 
and  some  even  in  the  First  grade. 

Drawing  work  is  given  in  all  grades  and  often  alter- 
nates with  Penmanship,  or  with  Vocal  Music.  Music  is 
usually  required  in  all  grades.  In  the  upper  grades  it  is 
given  but  two  or  three  days  per  week.  General  singing 
is  usually  conducted  in  all  departments,  either  in  connec- 
tion with  formal  Music  study,  or  separately. 


54        MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

While  the  vocational  subjects  are  stressed  more  in 
the  high  school,  Manual  Training  and  Home  Economics 
are  often  begun  in  the  grades.  Here  they  are  given  one 
or  two  hours  per  week  only,  and  in  the  Seventh  and 
Eighth  grades.  Occasionally  these  subjects  are  begun 
thus  as  early  as  the  Sixth  grade.  Grade  work  in  Home 
Economics  consists  mostly  of  sewing  by  hand,  although 
some  schools  give  some  cooking  lessons  in  the  Eighth 
grade.  Elementary  Agriculture  is  occasionally  taught 
in  the  Eighth  grade  of  the  school,  but  it  is  usually  not 
considered  practicable  here. 

A  new  subject  now  being  largely  included  in  grade 
schools  is  Citizenship  Training.  In  the  first  six  grades 
this  is  given  a  special  period  two  or  three  days  per  week, 
while  in  the  Seventh  and  Eighth  grades  it  is  correlated 
with  United  States  History  and  Civics.  Ordinarily  no 
text  is  used  by  pupils  below  the  Seventh  grade. 

In  outlining  a  course  of  study  for  the  grades,  the  fol- 
lowing plan  of  major  subjects  and  minor  subjects  may 
be  a  convenience.  This  course  is  suggestive,  and  would 
need  to  be  modified  to  meet  local  needs  and' state  require- 
ments. Major  subjcts  are  more  important  only  from 
the  standpoint  of  requiring  more  time.  Minor  subjects 
may,  if  necessary,  be  offered  two  or  three  periods  per 
week  instead  of  daily. 

I.  Primary  Department 
Grade  1 

(a)  Major  subjects. 

Reading  (two  Primers  and  two  First  Readers), 
Phonics,  Oral  Language  and  Story  Telling. 

(b)  Minor  subjects. 

Health  Talks  and  Health  Chores,  Games,  Music, 
Citizenship    Training,    Industrial    Arts:     Hand- 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS        55 

work,    Drawing,    etc.,    Nature    Study,    Number 
Work  (incidental). 
Grade  2 

(a)  Major  subjects. 

Reading  (one  First  Reader  and  three  Second 
Readers),  Phonics  and  Spelling,  Language  and 
Story  Telling,  Oral  and  Written  Number  Work, 
with  text  in  hands  of  teacher. 

(b)  Minor  subjects. 

Health  Talks  and  Health  Chores,  Games,  Nature 
Study,    Music,    Citizenship    Training,    Industrial 
Arts :    Handwork,  Drawing,  etc. 
Grade  3 

(a)  Major  subjects. 

Reading  (four  Third  Readers),  Phonics  and 
Spelling,  Language  and  Story  Telling,  Elemen- 
tary Arithmetic,  with  text,  Home  Geography  one- 
half  year,  Biography  Stories  one-half  year. 
(These  may  be  alternated  daily  instead,  or  one 
subject  given  thrice  per  week  and  the  other  twice 
per  week.) 

(b)  Minor  subjects. 

Hygiene,  Music,  Citizenship  Training,  Industrial 
Arts,  Handwork,  Drawing,  Writing,  etc. 

II.  Intermediate  Department 

Grade  4 

(a)  Major  subjects. 

Reading  (three  Readers),  Spelling  and  Dictionary 
Study,  Oral  Language  and  Written  Composition, 
Elementary  Arithmetic,  Elementary  Geography, 
Hygiene  one-half  year,  History  Stories  of  home 
state,  one-half  year.  (These  may  alternate  daily, 
instead,  or  one  subject  be  given  thrice  per  week 
and  the  other  twice  per  week.) 


56        MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

(b)  Minor  subjects. 

Music,  Citizenship  Training,  Penmanship,  Draw- 
ing. 

Grade  5 

(a)  Major  subjects. 

Reading  (three  Readers),  Spelling  and  Diction- 
ary Study,  Oral  Language  and  Written  Composi- 
tion, Elementary  Arithmetic,  Elementary  Geog- 
raphy, Hygiene  one-half  year,  U.  S.  History 
Stories  one-half  year.  (These  may  be  alternated 
daily,  instead,  or  one  subject  be  given  thrice  per 
week  and  the  other  twice  per  week.) 

(b)  Minor  subjects. 

Music,  Citizenship  Training,  Penmanship,  Draw- 
ing. 
Grade  6 

(a)  Major  subjects. 

Reading  (three  Readers),  Spelling  and  Diction- 
ary Study,  Advanced  Arithmetic,  Oral  Language 
and  Composition,  Advanced  Geography,  Ele- 
mentary United  States  History. 

(b)  Minor  subjects. 

Music,  Citizenship  Training,  Penmanship,  Draw- 
ing. 

III.  Grammar  Department 

Grade  7 

(a)   Major  subjects. 

Reading  (two  Readers  or  one  Reader  and  several 
Classics),  Spelling  and  Word  Analysis,  Ad- 
vanced Arithmetic,  Composition  and  Grammar, 
Advanced  Geography,  Beginnings  of  American 
History  in  Europe  one-half  year,  Physiology  one- 
half  year. 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS        57 

(b)  Minor  subjects. 

Music,  Citizenship  Training,  Penmanship,  Draw- 
ing, Manual  Training  and  Domestic  Science. 

Grade  8 

(a)  Major  subjects. 

Reading  (two  Readers  or  one  Reader  and  several 
Classics),  Spelling  and  Word  Analysis,  Advanced 
Arithmetic,  Composition  and  Grammar,  Amer- 
ican History,  Government  in  State  and  Nation. 

(b)  Minor  subjects. 

Music,  Drawing,  Penmanship,  Manual  Training 
and  Domestic  Science. 

The  High  School  Course.  While  the  Grade  Course 
of  Study  is  rather  rigidly  fixed,  this  is  not  true  to  such  an 
extent  in  the  high  school.  The  former  includes  in  sub- 
ject matter  the  tools  of  education,  while  the  latter  in- 
cludes rather  the  materials  of  education.  Local  needs 
and  demands,  therefore,  may  to  some  extent  govern  the 
choice  of  subjects  in  the  high  school.  For  the  small  high 
school,  able  to  offer  but  one  course,  this  should  be  a 
general,  and  not  a  special  course. 

Large  high  schools  may  offer  two  or  more  courses, 
some  providing  as  high  as  six  different  courses  from 
which  the  student  may  select  his  work.  Among  the 
courses  provided  are :  English  Course,  Foreign  Lan- 
guage, or  Classical  Course,  Commercial  Course,  Normal 
Training  Course  and  Vocational  Course.  In  general, 
the  differentiation  for  special  courses  begins  in  the  Junior 
year  of  the  High  School.  The  small  high  school  can  not 
advantageously  offer  special  courses  or  even  elective  sub- 
jects, owing  to  small  number  of  students  and  limited 
number  of  instructors.  It  is  not  generally  considered 
economy,  nor  really  desirable,  to  offer  either  elective  sub- 
jects or  special  courses  unless  such  subject  or  course 


58        MANUAL  FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

enrolls  ten  students,  certainly  not  when  it  enrolls  fewer 
than  six  students.  A  smaller  number  in  a  class  does 
not  offer  interest  enough  to  the  work,  besides  requiring 
an  unnecessary  number  of  instructors. 

A  course  of  study,  and  especially  a  general  course, 
should  be  well  balanced ;  that  is,  should  include  a  proper 
number  of  subjects  and  a  proportionate  amount  of  time 
in  the  several  fields  of  knowledge,  such  as  Science, 
Mathematics,  etc.  In  addition,  the  various  subjects 
should  be  offered  in  proper  sequence.  It  would  be  mani- 
festly unwise  to  offer  American  History  before  Modern 
History,  Geometry  before  Algebra,  or  Physics  before 
General  Science.  The  course  here  offered  is  given  as 
illustrative  of  the  two  points  mentioned  in  this  paragraph, 
and  not  as  a  model  for  any  school  to  follow.  Balance  of 
subject  matter  and  sequence  of  subjects  are  to  be  kept 
in  mind.  Foreign  Language  is  here  omitted,  but  by 
slight  rearrangement,  this  may  be  offered  in  the  third 
and  fourth  years.  In  a  general  course  it  is  not  consid- 
ered best  to  offer  more  than  two  years  of  Foreign 
Language,  and  these  should  be  in  the  Junior  and  Senior 
years,  according  to  opinion  of  most  experienced  school 
authorities. 

Suggestive  Course  of  Study  Showing  Balance  of  Subject 
Matter  and  Proper  Sequence  of  Studies 

First  Year  Second  Year 

English    (Composition   andEnglish    (Composition   and 

Rhetoric).  Rhetoric). 

Algebra  (to  Quadratics).         Plane  Geometry. 
General  Science.  Commercial  Geography,  y2  yr. 

Manual  Training — for  boys.  Agriculture,  y2  year. 
Domestic  Science — for  girls.  Ancient  and  Mediaeval  His- 
tory. 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS        59 

Third  Year  Fourth  Year 

English  Literature.  American  Literature. 

Arithmetic,  j£  year.  Physics. 

Physiology,  J^  year.  American  History,  y2  year. 

Modern  History.  American  Government,  ^  yr. 

Economics,  j£  year.  Sociology,  J^  year. 

Commercial  Law,  ^  year.       Industrial  History,  J/£  year. 

It  will  be  observed  here  that  the  field  of  English  has 
four  years,  Science  three  years,  Social  Science  four  years, 
Mathematics  two  and  one-half  years,  and  Vocational 
work  one  and  one-half  years.  None  of  these,  except  the. 
vocational  work,  is  of  a  special  nature.  In  a  general 
course  it  is  not  usually  wise  to  include  subjects  of  a  par- 
ticular nature ;  for  instance,  a  half  year  or  a  year  of  Book- 
keeping is  of  doubtful  value  unless  a  full  Commercial 
Course  can  be  offered,  while  the  offering  of  Psychology 
or  Pedagogy  is  likewise  unwarranted  unless  a  Normal 
Training  Course  is  offered. 

While  local  demand  may  legitimately  have  its  in- 
fluence in  shaping  a  course  of  study  in  the  High  School, 
this  should  come  from  a  real  need  and  not  from  a  whim 
of  a  certain  group  of  students.  The  practice  sometimes 
found  of  allowing  classes  each  year  to  vote  their  choice 
of  two  or  three  subjects  is  pernicious.  When  electives 
are  offered  they  should  be  offered  to  individual  students 
rather  than  to  classes,  and  only  in  schools  large  enough 
for  sectioning  of  classes.  A  subject  should  never  be 
offered  simply  because  some  instructor  is  prepared  for 
and  desires  to  teach  it;  the  school  is  not  intended  to  be 
a  training  school  for  superintendent,  principal  or  teacher, 
but  wholly  for  the  best  interest  of  the  students. 

The  Completed  Course.  When  a  course  of  study  is 
completed  it  should  be  arranged  in  printed  or  mimeo- 
graphed form,  with  copies  enough  for  distribution  to  all 


60        MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

teachers  and  school  officials.  Except  in  a  large  school 
system  it  is  not  advisable  to  go  to  the  trouble  and  expense 
of  preparing  a  course  of  study  in  pamphlet  form  of  fifty 
or  one  hundred  pages.  Such  pamphlets  are  of  value  for 
only  two  or  three  years.  A  brief  circular  or  folder  may 
well  be  printed,  or  mimeographed  copies  prepared  in  suf- 
ficient numbers  to  distribute  to  students  and  patrons. 
These  should  contain  a  synopsis  of  the  course  of  study, 
the  texts  in  use  and  some  general  rules  of  the  school.  If 
prepared  each  year,  these  may  also  contain  the  names  of 
school  officials,  and  the  names  of  teachers  and  their 
departments. 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS        61 

CHAPTER  VI 
Organization  of  the  School 

The  proper  organization  of  a  school  is  important,  as 
this  renders  both  administration  and  supervision  more 
easy.  While  the  general  plan  of  organization  into  grades 
and  departments  is  well  understood,  there  are  some  gen- 
eral considerations  which  ought  to  be  noted. 

Relative  Importance  of  Grades.  Among  school  of- 
ficials and  others  there  is  a  tendency  to  underestimate 
the  relative  importance  of  the  grades,  or  the  elementary 
department  of  the  school.  This,  perhaps,  comes  partly 
from  the  fact  that  the  organization  here  is  more  simple, 
and  in  part,  from  the  fact  that  there  are  fewer  organiza- 
tions here  to  claim  attention.  In  comparison  to  number 
of  pupils  involved,  however,  the  elementary  school  is 
more  important  than  the  high  school,  as  the  enrollment 
is  several  times  as  large  here  as  in  the  high  school.  No 
doubt,  also,  the  real  bent  educationally  is  more  often 
developed  while  the  pupil  is  in  the  elementary  school, 
and  his  educational  habits  are  formed  here.  More  teach- 
ing ability  is  needed  with  pupils  of  immature  age,  and 
therefore  more  careful  supervision  of  the  work  of  edu- 
cation. Care  must  also  be  exercised  to  see  that  the  work 
is  unified  and  correlated  as  the  pupil  passes  from  grade 
to  grade  and  from  teacher  to  teacher. 

Departments.  As  elementary  schools  are  usually  or- 
ganized there  are  three  distinct  departments,  the  Primary 
Department  of  three  years,  the  Intermediate  Deparment 
of  three  years,  and  the  Grammar  Department  of  two 
years.  Sometimes  there  is  also  a  Kindergarten  Depart- 
ment of  one  year,  preceding  the  Primary  Department. 


62        MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

Each  department,  to  a  degree,  is  distinct  in  its 
aim  and  in  its  method.  When  the  school  is  organized 
under  the  Junior-Senior  plan,  the  Grammar  Department 
becomes  a  part  of  the  Junior  High  School  or  Intermediate 
School,  which  somewhat  modifies  its  purpose  and  method. 

The  Kindergarten.  This  department  does  not  concern 
the  officials  of  the  small  school  system,  as  it  is  not  prac- 
tical here  to  attempt  to  maintain  a  Kindergarten  Depart- 
ment. There  is  not  usually  an  available  room,  nor  are 
there  pupils  enough  for  such  department.  The  work 
requires  the  services  of  a  specially  qualified  teacher.  It 
is  impractical  to  try  to  combine  this  with  Primary  work. 
A  few  schools  have  attempted  this,  but  the  effort  has 
resulted  instead  in  a  Sub-Primary  grade,  which  has  no 
practical  function.  Such  schools  are  fast  eliminating  the 
Sub-Primary  year.  Pupils  usually  enter  the  Kinder- 
garten at  five  years  of  age,  although  in  some  districts 
they  may  enter  younger.  The  distinct  purpose  of  the 
Kindergarten  is  to  bridge  over  the  transition  of  the  child 
from  the  home  to  the  school  and  to  give  a  certain  train- 
ing which  neither  provides.  Here  the  child  becomes 
gradually  accustomed  to  school  environment  and  to 
school  methods.  He  learns  to  obey  requests  and  to  fol- 
low directions.  He  finds  how  to  mingle  with  other 
children  and  to  co-operate  in  games,  etc.  Certain  games, 
construction  and  general  matters  are  learned.  Sense 
training  is  emphasized,  and  primary  concepts  in  morals, 
religion,  ethics,  citizenship,  etc.,  are  established.  The 
Kindergarten  teacher,  by  nature,  should  be  both  a  mother 
and  an  older  sister.  To  be  most  successful  she  should 
have  also  some  attributes  of  a  nurse.  It  is  better  if  the 
Kindergarten  room  is  somewhat  isolated  from  the  other 
departments  of  the  school.  It  should  be  emphasized  that 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS        63 

for  a  Kindergarten  full  equipment  should  be  provided, 
and  a  specially  prepared  teacher  be  employed. 

The  Primary  Department.  This  includes  pupils  from 
five  to  eight  years  of  age.  The  department  consists  of 
three  years  of  work  above  the  Kindergarten,  with  the 
emphasis  placed  upon  the  subject  of  Reading.  The  se- 
curing of  a  vocabulary  and  the  development  of  expression 
constitute  the  chief  ends  to  be  sought.  Sense  training 
and  ability  in  construction  are  important.  Primary  con- 
cepts in  the  various  subjects  are  developed  as  a  basis 
for  future  work,  although  Number  work,  Nature  study, 
etc.,  are  taught  incidentally  and  usually  without  a  text 
in  hands  of  pupils.  Phonics  and  Spelling  are  emphasized 
in  connection  with  the  Reading  work.  During  the  first 
two  years,  at  least,  a  method  reader  with  appropriate 
charts  and  cards  should  be  used.  The  Primary  teacher 
usually  uses  chart  and  blackboard,  only,  for  the  reading 
work,  for  a  period  of  six  to  eight  weeks.  Two  Primers 
and  two  First  Readers  constitute  a  reasonable  standard 
for  the  first  year  of  work  in  reading,  one  First  Reader 
and  three  Second  Readers  for  the  second  year  and  four 
Third  Readers  for  the  third  year.  Except  for  the  Basic 
reader,  the  readers  may  be  chosen  for  their  content. 
The  Basic  reader  should  be  the  first  reader  used  each 
year.  Usually  the  pupils  furnish  the  Basic  reader  and 
.the  district  furnishes  sets  of  the  others  as  supplementary. 
As  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  have  pupils  get  texts 
promptly  there  is  some  advantage  in  the  district  furnish- 
ing all  the  readers  in  the  Primary  department.  It  is 
well  for  each  grade  here  to  be  supplied  with  a  reader  set 
designed  distinctly  for  dramatic  reading. 

Primary  teachers  should  be  specially  trained  in 
Primary  methods,  and  it  is,  of  course,  preferred  that 
they  have  some  Primary  experience.  Especially  is  the 


64        MANUAL  FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

training  necessary  for  a  teacher  in  the   First  Primary 
grade. 

The  Intermediate  Department.  This  department  in 
general  includes  pupils  from  eight  to  eleven  years  of  age 
and  consists  of  grades  four,  five  and  six.  While  Read- 
ing here  is  also  an  important  subject,  other  subjects  are 
carried,  with  texts  in  the  hands  of  pupils.  The  Number 
Work  of  the  Primary  department  becomes  Arithmetic, 
and  Nature  Study  is  replaced  by  Geography.  Written 
work  is  here  taken  up  in  earnest,  and  the  writing  of 
examinations  begun.  The  use  of  the  dictionary  should 
begin  in  the  Fourth  grade  or  the  Fifth  grade,  and  teachers 
should  give  especial  training  to  pupils  in  proper  use  of 
dictionary.  Three  readers  should  be  read  by  each  grade. 
Not  so  much  attention  need  be  paid  to  Basic  reader  as 
formerly.  One  reader  chosen  may  be  designed  especially 
to  develop  the  power  of  silent  reading. 

This  is  an  important  department  from  the  standpoint 
of  inculcating  habits  of  study  and  methods  of  work.  The 
grades  in  this  department  should  neither  be  ignored  nor 
slighted.  Teachers  should  be  well  prepared  and  adapted 
to  children  of  this  age.  It  is,  of  course,  better  if  the 
teachers  should  have  had  previous  experience. 

The  Grammar  Department.  This  department  con- 
sists of  two  years  of  work,  the  Seventh  and  Eighth  grades. 
The  ages  in  general  range  from  twelve  to  fourteen.  As 
this  touches  the  pre-adolescent  period  of  childhood  it 
is  considered  a  difficult  department.  All  the  elementary 
subjects  here  receive  attention,  and  pupils  complete,  in 
this  department,  the  range  or  content  of  the  so-called 
"common  branches."  The  work  differs  from  that  of  the 
Intermediate  department  in  being  less  simple.  The  sub- 
ject matter  becomes  more  organized  and  reference  to 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS        65 

helps  outside  the  text  is  used.     Organizations  may  be 
made  a  strong  factor  and  a  help  to  the  work. 

The  Grammar  department  is  important  as  an  oppor- 
tunity to  interest  pupils  in  subjects  beyond  the  ele- 
mentary school  and  hold  them  in  school  for  high  school 
work.  In  some  schools  each  grade  will  be  in  a  separate 
room,  although  it  is  no  disadvantage,  providing  the 
grades  are  not  too  large,  to  have  both  grades  with  the 
same  teacher.  The  Grammar  room  teacher  should  have 
more  scholastic  preparation  than  is  required  of  other 
grade  teachers.  She  should  be  strong  in  discipline,  which 
means  that  she  should  understand  and  sympathize  with 
boys  and  girls  of  Grammar  school  age.  Usually  a  mature 
teacher  succeeds  better  here,  although  sometimes  a  young 
teacher  does  remarkably  well. 

General  Suggestions  on  the  Elementary  Work 

(a)  No  teacher  should  have  more  than  three  grades, 
preferably  not  more  than  two  grades. 

(b)  When   a   teacher  has  but  one  grade   the  grade 
should  be  sectioned,  if  there  are  more  than  fifteen 
pupils  in  the  grade,  and  in  most  subjects  the  sections 
should  recite  separately,  to  allow  more  opportunity 
for  participation  by  individual  pupils. 

(c)  In  dividing  a  grade  into  two  sections  care  should 
be  exercised  that  some  of  the  stronger  ones  and  some 
of  the  weaker  ones  be  placed  in  each  section ;  that  is, 
that  the  two  sections  approximately  average  in  abil- 
ity to  do  the  work.     In  large  schools  where  semi- 
annual promotions  are  possible  a  plan  may  safely  be 
used  of  dividing  a  grade   according  to  ability.     In 
sectioning  a  grade  it  is  better  not  to  designate  divi- 
sions as  "1"  and  "2"  or  as  "a"  and  "b."     Some  dis- 
tinctive name  may  better  be  given  each  division  which 
does  not  carry  the  idea  of  superiority  or  inferiority. 


(S        MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

(d)  Subjects  in  which  both  sections  may  well  par- 
ticipate  at   the   same   time   in   recitation   are:      Pen- 
manship, Drawing,  Music,  Spelling  and  occasionally 
in  assigning  or  developing  certain   lessons   in  other 
subjects.     Some  general  lessons  on  Health,  Morals, 
Nature  Study  and  Citizenship  may  well  be  taught  to 
both  sections  simultaneously. 

(e)  When  a  grade  is  sectioned,  care  should  be  ex- 
ercised that  one  division  does  not  prepare  its  lessons 
by  listening  to  the  recitation  of  the  previous  division. 
This  can  be  avoided  by  assigning,  daily,  slightly  dif- 
ferent lessons  to  the  different  divisions,  or  by  having 
one  division  several  lessons  in  advance  of  the  other. 

(f)  In  making  a  program  for  a  room,  a  definite  study 
period,  as  well  as  a  recitation  period,  should  be  in- 
dicated, at  least  below  the  Seventh  grade,  and  this 
schedule  should  be  posted  in  a  conspicuous  place  in 
the  room.     The  superintendent  also  should  have  in 
his  office  a  copy  of  each  room  program.    In  the  Sixth, 
Seventh  and  Eighth  grades  a  good  plan  is  to  have  the 
study  period  of  a  subject  follow  immediately  after  the 
recitation  period  for  that  subject. 

(g)  In  the  "Beginning  Class"  in  the  Primary  depart- 
ment, owing  to  the  varying  age  and  ability  of  the 
pupils,  division  may  well  be  made  according  to  ability. 
The  slower  pupils  should  be  the  smaller  section,  as 
these    pupils    can    then    be    given    more    individual 
attention. 

(h)  Except  in  schools  where  semi-annual  promotions 
are  possible,  a  "Beginning  Class"  should  be  organized 
only  at  the  first  of  the  school  year.  It  is  not  necessary 
to  allow  "Beginning"  pupils  to  enroll  whenever  their 
fifth  birthday  occurs,  or  at  any  time  later  than  the 
first  two  weeks  of  the  school  year,  and  such  enroll- 


MANUAL  FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS        67 

ment  is  usually  demoralizing  to  the  work  of  the 
Primary  teacher. 

(i)  The  practice  of  providing  a  sub-primary  year  or 
"Beginning"  year,  previous  to  the  First  grade  work, 
is  generally  being  discontinued,  except  when  a  regular 
Kindergarten  department  can  be  maintained  with  a 
specially  trained  Kindergarten  teacher. 
(j)  Usually  an  intermission  period,  both  forenoon  and 
afternoon,  should  be  rigidly  adhered  to  below  the  High 
School,  or  at  least  below  the  Grammar  School, 
(k)  During  the  intermission  period  it  is  equally  un- 
wise to  allow  a  pupil  to  remain  in  the  room  in  good 
weather  or  to  force  him  to  spend  the  period  outside 
in  inclement  weather,  or  when  he  does  not  feel  well. 
(1)  The  playground  should  be  supervised,  but  the 
play  is  often  better  if  not  directed.  The  purpose  of 
supervision  is  to  prevent  serious  friction,  bad  language, 
rough  sports,  and  to  see  that  no  child  is  left  out  of 
the  games.  Teachers  may  well  be  assigned  to  play- 
ground supervision,  a  day  at  a  time  or  a  week  at  a 
time,  in  their  turn. 

(m)  Discussion  of  current  events  once  or  twice  per 
week  should  be  held  in  the  Grammar  School  and  in 
the  Sixth  grade.  A  few  good  magazines  in  the  school 
are  a  valuable  aid. 

(n)  Below  the  Seventh  grade  the  reading  work  should 
be  confined  mostly  to  method  readers  and  to  content 
readers.  Pupils  in  the  first  six  grades  need  the  variety 
of  readings  given  in  regular  readers,  to  introduce  them 
to  various  life  interests. 

(o)  Classics  may  be  used  for  Reading  work  in  the 
Grammar  department,  instead  of  readers.     Complete 
units  will  thus  be  given, 
(p)   In  general  the  smaller  school  systems  should  not 


68        MANUAL  FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

attempt  semi-annual  promotions,  especially   if  there 
be  more  than  one  grade  in  a  room, 
(q)   The  true  term  to  use  for  children  in  the  elemen- 
tary school  is  "pupil,"  not  "student"  nor  "scholar." 
(r)  The  major  emphasis  on  subjects  varies  as  follows : 

1.  Primary    Department  --  English    and    Nature 
Study  groups. 

2.  Intermediate     Department  -  -  Arithmetic     and 
Science  groups. 

3.  Grammar  Department — Social  Science,  or  His- 
tory and  Civics  groups. 

Organization  of  the  High  School.  The  age  of  high 
school  students  usually  ranges  from  fourteen  to  eighteen 
years,  and  covers  the  complete  adolescent  period.  The 
High  School  as  usually  classified  consists  of  four  years  of 
work  above  eight  years  of  elementary  work.  The  grades 
are  known  as  Ninth  grade,  Tenth  grade,  Eleventh  grade 
and  Twelfth  grade.  To  distinguish  this  plan  from  the 
Junior-Senior  High  School,  it  is  sometimes  designated  as 
the  8-4  plan.  Another  plan  is  the  Junior-Senior,  or  6-3-3 
plan,  six  years  of  elementary  work,  three  years  of  Junior 
high  school  work  arid  three  years  of  Senior  high  school 
work.  Still  another  plan  is  the  6-2-4  plan,  or  the  Ele- 
mentary-Intermediate-High School  plan.  The  Interme- 
diate School  here  takes  the  place  of  the  Grammar  De- 
partment. 

The  High  School  course  of  study  is  always  differen- 
tiated from  the  Elementary  course.  The  true  Junior- 
Senior  high  school  or  the  true  Elementary-Intermediate- 
High  School  plan  reorganizes  the  Seventh  and  Eighth 
Grade  Course.  Small  schools  have  difficulty  in  reorgan- 
izing on  either  of  these  bases,  and  unless  the  organiza- 
tion can  be  carried  out  completely  it  is  of  doubtful  value. 
The  main  difficulties  are: 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS        69 

1.  Buildings  are  not  usually  so  arranged  as  to  provide 
two  high  school  rooms,  and  it  is  not  wise  to  place  the 
six  higher  grades  in  one  room,  owing  to  the  wide 
disparity  in  ages  and  in  interests. 

2.  Unless  the  two  rooms  are  located  in  close  proximity 
it  means  the  duplicating  of  library  and  equipment. 

3.  It  calls  for  better  qualified  and  therefore  higher 
salaried    teachers   for   the    Seventh   and   the   Eighth 
grades. 

4.  Usually  the  small  school  system  has  rural  pupils 
entering  the  Ninth  grade.    These  would  not  have  had 
the  same  work  as  the  town  pupils,  in  Seventh  and 
Eighth  grades,  hence  would  not  be  fitted  to  work  to- 
gether with  them  in  the  Ninth  grade.     The  larger 
high  school  might  section  classes  to  obviate  this  dif- 
ficulty.    The  plan  is  more  feasible  for  the  consolidated 
school  than  for  the  small  town  school,  because  the 
consolidated  school  does  not  usually  enroll  non-resi- 
dent pupils. 

The  high  school  differs  from  the  elementary  school 
also  in  the  matter  of  promotions.  In  the  former  the 
student  is  promoted  by  subjects,  while  in  the  latter  the 
pupil  is  promoted  by  grades,  or  credits.  Four  subjects 
constitute  regular  work  in  each  grade  of  the  high  school. 
A  student  should  not  be  permitted  to  take  fewer  subjects 
unless  from  necessity,  and  seldom  should  be  allowed  to 
take  more  than  the  regular  number. 

General  Suggestions  on  the  High  School  Work 

(a)  The  plan  of  four  forty-minute  or  forty-five-minute 
periods   in   the  forenoon  and   four   in  the  afternoon 
makes  the  best  arrangement  in  the  small  high  school, 
as  this  gives  approximately  half  the  time  to  students 
for  preparation  of  lessons. 

(b)  In  Science  subjects,  two  double  periods  weekly 


70         MANUAL   FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

should  be  used  for  experiments  and  demonstrations. 
With  real  small  classes  this  may  not  always  be  neces- 
sary. 

(c)  Teachers  should  be  assigned  work  as  far  as  pos- 
sible to  conform  to  the  following: 

1.  Ability  to  handle  subject  matter,  as  shown  by 
special  preparation,  previous  experience  or  natural 
ability. 

2.  To  bring  each  teacher  in  direct  class  contact 
with  as  many  of  the  student  body  as  possible. 

3.  According  to  disciplinary  ability.     Young  and 
inexperienced  teachers  in  general  should  be  given 
the  classes  more  easily  managed. 

4.  To  give  each  teacher,  as  far  as  possible,  most 
of  her  work  along  her  special  line ;  but  a  subject 
or  two  out  of  her  special  line  is  often  wholesome 
for  both  teacher  and  school. 

(d)  Discussion  of  current  events  should  be  had  once 
or  twice  per  week,  either  in  recitation  or  in  general 
exercises.     Whichever  plan  is  used  it  should  reach 
every  student.     A  few  weekly  or  monthly  magazines 
should  be  provided. 

(e)  General  opening  exercises  may  be  held  once  per 
week.     Many  teachers  use  this  period  for  singing  and 
devotionals. 

(f)  One  teacher  should  be  charged  especially  with  the 
care  of  the  high  school  library.     All  teachers  should 
direct  students  in  the  use  of  books  in  the  library.    In 
a  large  high  school  the  teacher  in  charge  of  the  library 
should  have  some  special  library  training.    This  train- 
ing may  be  obtained  by  attendance  at  a  suitable  sum- 
mer school. 

(g)  To  increase  the  interest  and  maintain  the  morale 
of  the  high  school  the  formation  of  one  or  more  or- 
ganizations is  good,  such  as  Literary  Societies,  Ath- 


MANUAL  FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS        71 

letic  Associations,  or  Glee  Clubs.  Whatever  organ- 
izations are  maintained  should  be  democratic,  should 
avoid  tendency  to  professionalism  and  should  be 
wholly  under  control  of  the  superintendent  or  teacher 
appointed  by  him.  Contests  within  the  school  by 
classes  or  organizations  are  more  desirable  than  con- 
tests with  neighboring  schools. 

(h)  Class  organizations  should  not  be  encouraged 
below  the  Junior  year,  and  in  small  high  schools  the 
value  of  class  organizations  at  all  is  doubtful, 
(i)  Classes  or  organizations  should  clearly  understand 
that  funds  raised  from  public  entertainments,  etc., 
belong  to  the  school  and  not  to  the  class  or  to  the 
organization.  The  Board  of  Education  may,  if  it  so 
desires,  permit  the  class  or  other  organization  to 
choose  the  method  of  expenditure  of  such  receipts  for 
the  school,  but  the  fund  does  not  belong  to  the  organ- 
ization nor  to  the  individuals  of  the  organization. 
(j)  The  class  of  entertainments  to  be  fostered  by  a 
high  school  organization  should  be  first  sanctioned  by 
the  superintendent  and  the  principal,  and  in  general 
should  be  of  such  nature  that  all  members  may  con- 
scientiously take  part. 

(k)  As  an  occasional  class  exercise,  school  exercise  or 
in  business  meetings  of  the  high  school  organizations, 
the  students  should  be  instructed  and  drilled  in  simple 
parliamentary  rules. 

(1)  In  keeping  record  of  credits  earned  by  students, 
some  system  should  be  used  that  will  show  on  one 
page,  by  year,  all  credits  of  a  student  for  the  full  high 
school  course.  Special  forms  for  such  can  be  secured 
from  most  school  supply  houses.  This  record  is  very 
important  and  should  be  kept  in  permanent  form  in 
the  office  of  the  school  superintendent  or  in  the  files  of 
the  secretary  to  the  Board  of  Education. 


MANUAL  FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

(m)  Any  teacher  in  the  high  school  may  legitimately 
be  called  upon  to  take  charge  of  assembly  room,  do 
hall  duty,  etc. 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS        73 

CHAPTER  VII 
Class-Room  Organization 

Scope.  Although  the  term  "Class-Room"  is  in  gen- 
eral not  clearly  defined,  it  is  here  used  to  denote  a  room 
in  which  one  or  more  classes  or  grades  sit  for  study,  or 
for  both  study  and  recitation  purposes.  The  discussion 
here  applies  more  to  the  grade  room,  but  may,  in  part, 
apply  also  to  the  high  school  study  room  or  to  the  high 
school  recitation  room. 

Seating  of  Pupils.  An  important  matter  in  class- 
room organization  is  the  proper  seating  of  pupils.  Al- 
though no  definite  rule  can  be  given  to  apply  to  all 
schools  or  to  all  rooms,  a  few  matters  for  consideration 
will  here  be  given,  and  in  the  order  of  first  importance. 

1.  Pupils,  above  all,  should  be  so  seated  that  the  desks 
and  the  seats  are  suited  to  them  in  the  matter  of  height. 
The  pupil's  feet  should  reach  the  floor  comfortably  and 
without  elevating  the  knees  or  without  compelling  the 
pupil's  limbs  to  be  extended.     The  desk  should  be  just 
high  enough  for  the  pupils   to  assume  a  good  writing 
position.    When  adjustable  seats  and  desks  are  provided 
these  should  be  carefully  adjusted  with  the  pupil  sitting, 
and  the  adjustment  should  be  made  both  at  the  beginning 
of  the  school  year  and  again  in  the  middle  of  the  school 
year. 

2.  Children  delicate  in  health  should  be  so  located  as  to 
avoid  cold  parts  of  the  room  or  sudden  draughts.    Pupils 
with  poor  eyesight  should  be  in  close  proximity  to  black- 
boards, charts,  etc.,  while  those  with  defective  hearing 
should  be  near  the  front  of  the  room. 

3.  There  are  usually  in  each  room  two  or  more  grades 
or  sections ;  usually  a  section  or  grade  is  seated  together 


74        MANUAL   FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

on  one  side  of  the  room.  If  the  room  has  regular  recita- 
tion seats  and  pupils  are  inclined  to  assist  each  other 
too  much,  it  may  be  wise  to  scatter  the  sections  pro- 
miscuously to  avoid  this. 

4.  Communicative  and  troublesome  pupils  may  be 
isolated  from  other  pupils  or  seated  near  the  front  of 
the  room  under  close  supervision  of  the  teacher. 

Organization  of  Pupils'  Work.  A  few  schools,  espe- 
cially in  Kindergarten  and  Primary  rooms,  use  study 
tables  instead  of  individual  desks.  This  eliminates  the 
rigid,  static  condition  of  the  room  and  permits  more  free- 
doom  to  the  pupils.  When  the  regular  individual  seat 
and  desk  are  used  for  each  pupil,  the  desk  becomes  the 
pupil's  "office",  and  he  may  be  taught  to  have  office  sys- 
tem and  office  rules.  Regular  office  hours  may  be  sched- 
uled and  office  routine  observed.  The  pupil  then  feels 
personally  responsible  for  the  condition  of  the  office  and 
for  the  proper  keeping  of  books  and  papers. 

.Some  schools  have  monthly  inspection  of  the  pupils' 
text  books  by  principal  or  teacher,  to  induce  better  care 
of  books.  The  teacher's  care  of  desk  and  books  should 
be  a  model  for  the  pupils.  Each  text,  tablet  and  pencil 
box  kept  by  the  pupil  should  have  a  definite  place  in  the 
desk.  The  proper  use  of  tablets  should  be  taught,  or 
many  pupils  are  apt  to  be  wasteful  and  slovenly  with 
them.  Some  teachers  have  pupils  in  a  class  procure  the 
same  kind  of  permanent  tablet,  have  these  tablets  care- 
fully paged,  and  then  hold  pupils  responsible  for  use  of 
each  page. 

The  Schedule.  The  very  first  day  of  the  year  or  the 
semester,  if  possible,  there  should  be  arranged  a  definite 
time  schedule  for  both  recitations  and  study  periods.  In 
the  Grammar  room  and  the  High  School  it  is,  of  course, 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS        75 

not  so  necessary  for  students  to  adhere  to  a  definite 
study  hour,  although  there  is  distinct  advantage  to  a 
student  in  having  a  definite  routine  of  work.  In  the 
High  School  it  is  usually  considered  that  the  study  period 
for  a  regular  academic  subject  should  be  twice  the  length 
of  the  recitation  period,  except  where  laboratory  periods 
are  added  to  recitation  periods.  In  general,  a  grade 
schedule,  at  least  below  Seventh  grade,  should  provide 
equal  length  of  recitation  periods  and  study  periods. 

In  Intermediate  and  in  Grammar  departments  some 
teachers  claim  much  better  results  by  having  the  study 
period  follow  immediately  the  recitation  period  in  a  given 
subject.  This  permits  pupils  to  prepare  an  assignment 
while  it  is  clearly  in  mind  and  when  interest  in  the  subject 
is  aroused. 

During  a  study  period,  pupils  may  be  allowed  to  read 
current  magazines  or  library  reference  books  for  remain- 
der of  period  after  the  preparation  of  the  lesson  is  com- 
plete. This  is  an  inducement  to  concentrated  attention 
and  rapid  work.  At  the  same  time  it  may  lead  to  care- 
less work  or  "skimming",  so  should  be  watched  care- 
fully. The  reading  of  stories  in  school  should  usually  not 
be  permitted,  as  such  practice  is  apt  to  dissipate  atten- 
tion to  lessons. 

In  the  daily  schedule  there  should  be  provided  a  period 
of  from  ten  to  twenty  minutes  for  general  exercises. 
Except  in  the  Primary  department  one  such  period  per 
day  is  sufficient.  Usually  this  exercise  is  scheduled  at 
the  beginning  of  either  the  forenoon  or  the  afternoon  ses- 
sion, although  a  few  teachers  prefer  it  at  the  close  of  the 
session  as  a  relaxation.  The  general  exercise  should  be 
purposeful,  either  instructive  or  inspirational  in  charac- 
ter, not  simply  entertaining.  Sometimes  it  may  be  used 
for  some  lively  drill.  A  singing  exercise  is  excellent  if 
well  conducted  and  not  overdone.  Usually  there  is  no 


76        MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

objection  to  the  use  of  devotionals,  although  care  on  the 
part  of  the  teacher  should  be  exercised  that  no  pupil  be 
offended  by  requiring  him  to  take  part  in  religious  exer- 
cises to  which  he  or  his  parents  might  object.  The  giving 
of  quotations  by  pupils  is  good.  In  upper  grades  and  in 
high  school,  one  period  per  week  may  well  be  used  in 
discussion  of  "current  events".  Here,  also,  an  outside 
speaker,  singer,  etc.,  may  be  utilized.  The  exercise  should 
be  spirited  and  not  become  a  bore  to  pupils.  For  this 
reason  the  exercise  should  be  varied  occasionally. 

The  daily  schedule  should  be  carefully  followed  as  to 
time,  although  recitation  work  may  be  varied.  It  is  not 
always  necessary  that  at  each  recitation  period  pupils 
recite.  Sometimes  drill  work  may  be  the  order  during 
this  period,  and  occasionally  a  full  recitation  period  may 
be  given  over  to  review  or  to  assignment  of  an  important 
lesson. 

The  Recitation.  In  general,  the  purpose  of  the  reci- 
tation is  fourfold,  to  test  the  pupils'  preparation  of  the 
assignment,  to  review  the  previous  lesson,  to  correlate 
or  give  added  information  to  connect  the  lesson  with 
previous  lessons,  and  to  create  interest  in  future  lessons 
by  carefully  making  the  following  day's  assignment. 
At  times,  also,  drill  of  fundamentals  becomes  an  impor- 
tant purpose.  It  is  not  necessary,  of  course,  that  these 
purposes  always  be  considered  in  their  order,  nor  that 
all  of  them  be  recognized  in  every  recitation.  Some- 
times one  may  predominate  and  at  other  times  others, 
or  one  may  at  certain  times  command  all  the  attention 
in  the  recitation.  It  is  important,  however,  that  the 
teacher's  preparation  for  the  recitation  shall  be  considered 
in  all  these  relations. 

The  place  and  manner  of  holding  the  recitation  are 
more  important  than  usually  considered.  A  separate 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

recitation  room  provided  with  blackboard,  charts  and 
other  helps  is  ideal.  Where  one  teacher  does  all  the  work 
of  the  room  and  there  are  more  than  one  section  or 
grade,  this  is  practically  impossible  of  attainment.  The 
next  better  plan  is  to  have  separate  recitation  seats, 
either  in  the  front  or  in  the  rear  of  the  room.  Either 
of  these  conditions  permit  the  changing  of  environment, 
which  is  psychologically  a  help  in  getting  pupils  in  the 
attitude  of  mind  for  a  recitation.  When  pupils  must, 
however,  remain  at  their  individual  desks  for  the  recita- 
tion, it  is  a  good  plan,  before  beginning  the  recitation 
work,  to  have  pupils  stand  and  take  breathing  or  calis- 
thenic  exercises  for  a  moment  or  two,  or  even  to  march 
around  the  room.  This  gets  the  mind  off  the  study  and 
secures  attention  on  the  recitation. 

Further  mention  will  be  made  regarding  the  man- 
ner of  conducting  the  recitation,  but  mention  may  be 
made  here  of  the  importance  of  promptness  and  order. 
If  pupils  are  required  to  stand  to  recite,  they  should  stand 
erect  and  a  little  away  from  the  desk.  No  books,  pencils, 
etc.,  should  be  on  the  desk  to  invite  fumbling. 

Blackboard  Work.  Although  blackboard  work  is 
often  a  part  of  the  recitation,  it  is  considered  here  of 
enough  importance  for  separate  consideration.  Every 
class-room  and  every  recitation  room  should  have  plenty 
of  blackboard  space,  with  the  board  properly  placed. 
There  should  be  board  space  in  a  recitation  room  for  the 
maximum  number  of  students  to  work  at  once.  In  a 
grade  or  class-room  the  board  space  should  accommodate 
one-half  the  number  of  pupils  in  the  room.  Usually  it 
is  better  not  to  have  the  blackboard  placed  in  the  rear 
of  the  room,  but  rather  in  the  front  and  on  one  or  two 
sides.  The  blackboard  is  often  used  by  the  teacher  for 
assignment  of  problems  and  other  work,  and  this  should 


MANUAL   FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

be  carefully  placed  and  written  large  enough  so  that  all 
pupils  may  see  the  work  without  eye  strain.  The  front 
board  is  usually  used  for  this  purpose,  to  avoid  the  neces- 
sity of  pupils  turning  to  see  the  work. 

Some  teachers  question  the  value  of  pupils  using  the 
blackboard,  especially  in  the  Primary  department.  Pri- 
mary pupils  enjoy  blackboard  work,  however,  and  there 
seems  to  be  no  valid  reason  why  they  may  not  use  the 
board  as  soon  as  they  begin  to  draw  or  write.  For  all 
pupils  a  blackboard  exercise  offers  variety  in  the  work, 
and  any  teacher  knows  a  school  ordinarily  has  too  little 
variety.  Excellent  lessons  of  order,  neatness,  etc.,  may 
also  be  taught  at  the  blackboard,  which  cannot  be  taught 
as  well  elsewhere.  An  excellent  opportunity  is  here  of- 
fered for  criticism  by  all  members  of  the  class.  Board 
work  in  this  way  places  individual  responsibility  of  a 
high  order,  and  if  combined  with  demonstration  by  the 
pupil  is  exceedingly  educative  in  its  process. 

In  blackboard  work,  during  recitation  period,  usually 
all  members  of  the  class  should  participate,  if  there  is 
room.  The  blackboard  should  be  thoroughly  erased  be- 
fore the  exercise  begins.  No  margin  of  crayon  marks 
should  surround  the  space  used  by  a  pupil.  When  work  is 
assigned  it  is  better  that  all  begin  work  at  the  same  time. 
Sometimes  it  is  preferable  to  assign  the  work  before  the 
pupils  pass  to  the  board.  In  assigning  problems,  topics 
or  exercises,  not  all  should  be  given  the  same,  for  there 
is  too  much  inducement  to  copy  or  to  compare.  Prob- 
lems may  be  assigned  in  alternation,  or  the  class  may 
number  by  ones,  twos,  threes,  etc.,  to  receive  their  as- 
signed exercise.  The  work  should  be  inspected  by  the 
teacher  before  being  erased,  and  mistakes  corrected. 
Slovenly  work  should  be  required  to  be  rewritten.  Work 
should  not  be  erased  until  the  signal  is  given.  Order 


MANUAL  FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS         79 

should  prevail  in  board  work.  At  close  of  the  black- 
board exercise  all  work  should  be  carefully  erased  unless 
there  is  a  definite  purpose  for  its  remaining.  All  work 
should  be  neat,  accurate  and  rapid.  A  drone  or  a  slovenly 
worker  may,  as  a  punishment,  be  prohibited  the  use  of 
the  blackboard  for  a  season.  If  there  is  not  room  for 
all  members  of  the  class  to  work  at  the  board,  those  at 
the  recitation  seat  should  be  given  work  to  do  there. 
They  may  each  be  appointed  to  follow  the  work  of  a  cer- 
tain pupil  at  the  board  and  offer  corrections  or  criticisms. 

Method  of  Questioning.  In  conducting  a  recitation 
much  depends  upon  the  art  of  questioning.  The  teacher 
should  be  so  familiar  with  the  subject  in  hand  and  so 
definite  in  the  purpose  to  be  accomplished  that  she  will 
need  no  open  text  book  as  an  aid.  Much  better  results 
will  be  obtained  if  no  help  of  this  kind  is  at  hand  for  the 
teacher  during  the  recitation.  As  soon  as  teachers  be- 
come accustomed  to  conducting  a  recitation  without  text 
or  notes  they  invariably  prefer  this  to  any  other  plan. 

Space  will  not  permit,  in  this  discussion,  more  than 
a  few  points  to  be  considered.  Moreover,  this  is  a  discus- 
sion on  organization  rather  than  on  methods,  so  a  lengthy 
discussion  would  have  no  place  here.  Several  methods 
of  questioning  should  be  noticed,  however,  such  as  the 
question  and  answer  method,  the  answer  being  "yes"  or 
"no",  or  by  the  use  of  the  indirect  question  method,  the 
topic  method  in  which  pupils  are  asked  to  recite  by  topics 
studied  in  the  text.  A  third  method  is  to  discuss  a  cer- 
tain phase  of  the  subject,  requesting  such  a  discussion 
by  one  pupil  as  fully  as  possible  and  then  by  a  general 
discussion  by  other  members  of  the  class.  Still  another 
plan  is  to  have  pupils  bring  questions  to  the  recitation 
to  be  answered  by  other  members  of  the  class  or  by  the 


80        MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

teacher.     All  of  these  methods  have  their  merits,  and 
probably  no  one  method  should  be  used  exclusively. 

Some  recitations  resolve  themselves  into  drill  exer- 
cises, naturally,  in  which  pupils,  one  at  a  time,  go  through 
the  exercise,  or  all  go  through  the  exercise  in  concert. 
If  pupils  are  called  upon  individually  to  recite,  it  is 
usually  better  that  they  are  called  promiscuously  rather 
than  in  order  as  they  are  seated  or  alphabetically  by 
name.  Better  attention  on  the  part  of  all  can  thus  be 
secured.  Again,  the  pupil's  name  should  be  called  after 
the  question  is  asked  or  the  topic  assigned  rather  than 
before.  The  reason  for  this  is  obvious.  It  is  often  dis- 
cussed as  to  whether  a  teacher  should  require  pupils  to 
stand  during  a  recitation  exercise,  that  is, — while  the 
pupil  is  reciting.  Most  teachers  prefer  this  in  the  grades, 
but  do  not  insist  upon  it  in  the  high  school.  More  re- 
sponsibility is  placed  upon  the  pupil  if  he  stands  before 
the  class  in  recitation  and  it  is  not  so  easy  for  him  to  re- 
fuse to  recite  if  he  must  stand  and  fail  to  answer  a 
question  or  to  recite  on  a  topic.  It  is  much  more  em- 
barrassing than  if  he  simply  refuses  while  seated.  In 
rapid  review  exercises  it  is  probably  better  to  permit 
pupils  to  remain  seated.  Primary  teachers  often  prefer 
to  have  pupils  stand  during  the  whole  recitation  exercise. 

Assignment  of  Lesson.  Mention  has  been  made  that 
one  of  the  purposes  of  the  recitation  period  is  the  assign- 
ment of  the  following  lesson.  This  is  so  important  that 
it  needs  separate  consideration.  In  Primary  and  Inter- 
mediate departments  it  is  usually  better  that  the  assign- 
ment be  made  just  before  the  study  period  for  a  subject, 
as  pupils  can  then  better  know  just  what  to  do  in  the 
preparation.  In  the  upper  grades  or  the  high  school, 
however,  the  assignment  should  usually  be  made  at  the 
time  of  the  recitation  or  during  the  recitation  period. 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS        81 

Many  teachers  prefer  to  make  the  assignment  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  recitation  period  rather  than  at  the  close, 
so  that  they  may  not  be  hurried  in  the  assignment. 
Whenever  the  assignment  is  made,  sufficient  time  should 
be  given  to  make  the  matter  clear  to  all  pupils,  and  they 
should  then  be  held  responsible  for  such  preparation. 
They  should  not  be  permitted  to  acquire  the  habit  of 
inquiring  again  concerning  the  assignment. 

In  the  assignment  of  a  lesson  it  is  not  enough  for  the 
teacher  to  say  "take  the  next  lesson",  or  "take  so  many 
pages".  This  is  no  assignment  at  all.  The  assignment 
should  be  so  definite  that  pupils  may  know  for  just  what 
they  are  to  be  held  accountable  in  the  recitation.  If  work 
outside  the  text  is  assigned,  this  should  also  be  definite 
and  pupils  should  be  told  where  to  find  the  material.  The 
proper  assignment  of  a  lesson  necessarily  requires  previous 
preparation  on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  Some  teachers 
keep  a  daily  plan  book  or  weekly  plan  book  in  which 
assignment  of  all  lessons  are  carefully  written  out.  This 
is  an  excellent  practice,  especially  by  an  inexperienced 
teacher.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  at  least  one-half 
the  success  of  a  recitation  depends  upon  the  previous 
assignment  of  the  lesson  by  the  teacher.  Unless  a  teacher 
makes  careful  assignment  of  a  lesson  she  should  not 
complain  of  pupils  who  come  to  recitation  partially  pre- 
pared. 

The  Matter  of  Discipline.  A  whole  chapter  more  than 
once  has  been  written  on  the  subject  of  discipline,  but 
a  few  suggestions  may  be  ventured  here.  There  is  much 
confusion  in  the  understanding  of  the  term  "discipline". 
In  the  minds  of  many  teachers  it  means  simply  "punish- 
ment". It  should  mean  "training",  and  in  this  sense 
every  pupil  should  be  disciplined  every  day  he  is  in 
school. 


82         MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

Two  opposite  theories  obtain  at  present  concerning 
so-called  school  discipline.  One  theory  is  that  there 
should  be  almost  military  order  in  and  about  the  school 
room;  that  pupils  should  be  taught  to  obey  implicity  and 
at  once  and  be  properly  punished  for  disobedience.  This 
theory  is  giving  place  to  a  milder  form  of  discipline, 
however,  and  some  educators  go  to  the  extent  of  advo- 
cating self-discipline  by  the  pupil,  or  much  freedom  of 
action  by  the  child.  Out  of  this  has  grown  what  is 
known  to  be  "student  self-government"  or  "student  co- 
operative government".  No  doubt  some  good  can  be 
said  for  each  of  these  methods,  but  probably  the  success- 
ful method  lies  between  these  two  extremes.  No  doubt 
pupils  may  be  given  much  self-determination  in  the  mat- 
ter of  their  actions  if  this  be  given  them  gradually,  as 
they  are  able  to  assume  such.  With  Primary  and  Inter- 
mediate children  not  so  much  self-government  can  be 
granted  as  to  those  in  the  Grammar  school  and  the  High 
School.  In  any  department,  leadership  rather  than  autoc- 
racy ought  to  be  the  motto  of  the  teacher.  Whatever 
form  of  government,  the  teacher  should  be  leader  and  be 
the  responsible  head  in  the  room.  The  success  of  any 
method  of  discipline  depends  upon  the  teacher's  person- 
ality and  leadership  rather  than  on  the  method. 

Discipline  should  obtain  not  only  in  the  school  room, 
but  in  passing  to  and  from  the  school  room,  in  activities 
on  the  playground,  and  even  in  the  social  relations  of 
pupils  on  the  way  to  and  from  school.  It  should  even 
carry  further  and  govern  the  pupils  in  their  actions  at 
home  and  on  the  street.  The  influence  of  the  discipline 
in  the  school  should  "carry  over"  to  other  activities  and 
environments. 

Much  of  the  success  of  a  teacher  in  the  government  of 
her  pupils  in  the  school  room  depends  upon  her  super- 
vision of  the  child's  activities  on  the  playground.  Care- 


MANUAL   FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS        83 

ful  supervision  here  will  prevent  many  troubles  else- 
where. Some  teachers  have  a  system  of  using  monitors 
or  assistants  in  the  school.  While  this  may  sometimes 
be  justifiable,  it  is  not  to  be  recommended,  as  it  often 
creates  jealousy  among  pupils  and  becomes  a  temptation 
to  the  teacher  to  shift  responsibility. 

A  question  always  discussed  but  never  yet  settled  is 
the  question  of  whether  pupils  shall  be  permitted  to  com- 
municate, or  whisper,  in  school.  It  is  safe  to  say  that 
there  are  very  few  school  rooms  in  which  there  is  not 
some  such  communicating  done,  in  some  rooms,  no  doubt, 
too  much  of  it.  No  definite  rule  can  be  made.  No  doubt 
communicating  can  be  placed  on  a  basis  of  fairness  and 
yet  within  control  of  the  teacher.  One  successful  teacher 
has  a  rule  that  no  pupil  shall  whisper  to  another  pupil 
in  the  room  unless  he  leave  his  own  desk  and  stand  be- 
side the  desk  of  the  pupil  to  whom  he  wishes  to  speak. 
If  the  communication  becomes  prolonged  or  accorded 
too  frequently,  the  privilege  is  taken  away  from  such 
pupil  for  a  certain  period  of  time.  This  plan  no  doubt 
has  its  merits. 

Another  puzzling  question  for  the  teacher  is  to  know 
whether  to  permit  one  pupil  to  assist  another  pupil  in 
work.  It  is  true  that  outside  the  school  room,  in  all 
activities  of  life,  children  are  urged  to.  be  helpful,  one  to 
another.  It,  therefore,  may  not  be  wise  to  absolutely 
prohibit  this  help  in  the  school,  but  every  teacher  knows 
it  must  be  controlled  or  some  pupils  would  give  too  much 
help  and  others  would  be  glad  to  receive  too  much  help. 
It  is  really  an  individual  matter  for  each  teacher  to  decide. 

In  closing  this  discussion,  one  other  point  ought  per- 
haps to  be  considered.  There  has  grown  up  in  our 
schools  a  system  of  contests  and  rewards  much  greater 
than  schools  formerly  had.  The  granting  of  half-holi- 
days, exemption  from  examinations,  a  place  on  the  roll 


84        MANUAL   FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

of  honor,  etc.,  has,  in  some  schools,  become  pernicious  in 
its  results  as  a  whole  on  the  school.  Weaker  pupils  are 
discouraged  because  they  cannot  hope  to  obtain  a  place 
of  honor,  while  stronger  pupils  come  to  feel  that  there  is 
no  inducement  to  good  work  without  some  kind  of  re- 
ward. The  idea  of  good  work  for  the  work's  sake  and 
for  the  reaction  on  the  pupil  in  the  feeling  of  having  done 
good  work  is  lost.  Pupils  are  in  this  way  incidentally 
taught  to  believe  that  good  work  merits  exemption  or  a 
shortening  of  the  period  of  work. 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS        85 

CHAPTER  VIII 
Administration  of  the  School 

Types  of  Teachers  Needed.  The  several  departments 
of  the  school  have  been  discussed  in  regard  to  organiza- 
tion and  type  of  work.  A  word  may  here  be  given  rela- 
tive to  choice  of  teachers  for  each  department.  Children 
of  the  various  departments  differ  in  age  and  nature, 
hence  require  a  different  type  of  teacher.  A  few  teachers 
there  are  who  are  born  teachers  and  can  adapt  them- 
selves to  any  age  or  department.  Many  there  are  who 
are  somewhat  naturally  adapted  to  succeed  with  certain 
ages  of  pupils.  These  will  succeed,  if  rightly  placed,  but 
will  become  mediocre  teachers  or  worse  if  placed  in  the 
wrong  department.  Another  class  of  teachers  become 
teachers  by  training  only,  therefore  should  be  placed  in 
the  work  for  which  they  are  specially  trained.  The  special 
training  must  always  be  taken  into  account  in  placing 
teachers,  and  usually  receives  first  consideration. 

Kindergarten  and  Primary  children  need  a  teacher 
with  mother  instinct,  one  who  will  in  a  measure  take  the 
place  of  the  mother  in  the  home.  For  this  reason  some 
contend  that  a  Kindergarten  or  a  Primary  teacher  should 
be  mature  in  age.  Many  young  teachers,  however,  suc- 
ceed here,  just  as  young  nurses  succeed  well  in  caring  for 
children.  It  is  not  a  matter  of 'age,  but  a  matter  of 
understanding  and  sympathy.  The  Intermediate  pupil 
does  not  so  much  need  a  mother  as  an  older  sister.  The 
teacher  should  be  a  child  leader,  able  to  direct  pupils  in 
games  and  sports  as  well  as  in  regular  school  work.  The 
Grammar  Room  teacher,  on  the  other  hand,  should  be 
somewhat  of  a  commander,  a  benevolent  ruler.  She 
should  understand  the  meaning  of  adolescent  age  and 
should  have  a  controlling  and  steadying  influence  over 


86        MANUAL  FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

those  in  her  charge.  The  High  School  teacher  should  be 
somewhat  of  a  companion  and  an  organizer,  and  at  the 
same  time  she  should  have  social  discretion  and  mature 
judgment. 

In  visiting  numerous  schools  one  will  be  impressed 
by  the  fact  that  in  general  the  younger  teachers  are 
found  in  the  High  School  department,  many  of  these  with 
very  little  or  with  no  experience.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
older  and  the  most  experienced  teachers  are  in  general 
found  teaching  the  grade  work.  While  an  economic  or 
a  professional  explanation  may  be  found  for  this,  in  some 
ways  it  seems  unfortunate.  Youth  in  the  high  school 
especially  need  the  steadying  influence  and  the  wise  di- 
rection that  comes  from  mature  leadership  and  experience 
in  life  problems. 

There  is  a  general  opinion  that  the  Grammar  depart- 
ment is  the  most  important  and  the  most  difficult  to 
teach.  From  one  standpoint  this  may  be  true,  that  of 
keeping  pupils  in  school.  The  compulsory  school  age 
ends  here  and  there  is  a  "Call  to  the  Market  Place".  In 
all  departments  there  are  problems  which  can  be  solved 
only  by  an  understanding,  appreciative  and  sympathetic 
teacher.  The  Kindergarten  and  Primary  departments 
are  more  simple  and  lend  themselves  more  readily  to 
special  method  in  the  work. 

General  Notes  on  Administration 

(a)  When  possible,  a  small  office  with  desk  and  filing 
case  should  be  provided  for  the  superintendent.     A 
roll-top  desk  or  a  flat-top  desk  with  plenty  of  drawers, 
placed  in  the  assembly  room,  is  the  best  substitute  for 
an  office.    The  superintendent,  however,  should  spend 
but  little  time  in  his  office  during  school  hours. 

(b)  The  superintendent  should,  if  possible,  visit  each 
teacher's  work  at  least  once  a  week,  and  often  for  a 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS        87 

full  recitation  period.  To  avoid  visiting  the  same 
recitation  each  time,  he  can  ask  the  teacher  to  vary 
her  program  for  the  day. 

(c)  After  a  visit  to  a  room  or  recitation,  the  super- 
intended should,  at  his  earliest  convenience,  discuss 
the  work  with  the  teacher.    He  should  tactfully  sug- 
gest improvements  and  in  general  assist  the  teacher 
in  a  constructive  way. 

(d)  When  the  superintendent  has  entire  charge  of  a 
room  and  cannot  visit,  he  should  have  a  weekly  con- 
ference with  each  teacher  regarding  her  work. 

(e)  The  superintendent  should  hold  a  general  teach- 
ers' meeting  at  least  once  per  month  for  conference 
on  school  work  or  for  study  of  methods. 

(f)  Examinations  are  held  above  the  Primary  depart- 
ment in  some  schools  once  per  month,  in  others  once 
in  six  weeks,  and  in  still  others  once  in  nine  weeks. 
The  six-weeks'  period  seems  best  for  the  small  school. 

(g)  There  is  a  growing  tendency  to  promote  pupils 
in  class-room  standing  more  than  on  result  of  exam- 
ination.   Many  schools  count  two-thirds  on  the  former 
and  one-third  on  the  latter. 

(h)  Teachers  may  well  be  required  to  arrive  at  the 
building  thirty  minutes  before  the  opening  of  school 
at  the  morning  session  and  fifteen  minutes  previous  at 
the  afternoon  session. 

(i)  Pupils  should  never  be  left  alone  in  the  building 
at  the  noon  period.  If  a  responsible  janitor  is  not  in 
charge,  teachers  and  superintendent  should  take  their 
turn  daily  or  weekly  in  taking  personal  charge  at  this 
time. 

(j)   In  two-story  or  three-story  buildings  systematic 
fire  drill  should  be  held  once  per  month  or  oftener. 
(k)   Much  time  in  some  schools  is  wasted  by  purpose- 
less "opening  exercises",  especially  in  the  grades.  Ex- 


88        MANUAL   FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

cept  in  Primary  grades  it  is  not  necessary  to  have  two 
periods  per  day  for  such  exercises.  "Opening  Exer- 
cises" should  be  instructive  or  inspirational  rather 
than  entertaining. 

(1)  A  superintendent  should  not  assume  hall  duty, 
but  should  assign  such  to  teachers,  as  his  time  should 
be  free  for  more  general  duties.  This  does  not  sig- 
nify that  he  should  shift  responsibility  for  order  and 
discipline. 

(m)  Departmental  teaching  is  being  successfully  used 
in  some  Grammar  Schools,  but  it  does  not  seem  ad- 
visable to  attempt  such  below  the  Seventh  grade, 
(n)  The  superintendent  should  supervise  the  daily 
records  kept  by  teachers  and  carefully  examine  all 
reports  made  out  by  them. 

(o)  General  supervision  of  the  work  in  vocational  and 
other  special  subjects  should  not  be  neglected  by  the 
superintendent.  These  should  be  made  practical  and 
should,  as  far  as  possible,  be  correlated  with  the  other 
work  of  the  school. 

(p)  Where  old,  out-of-date  texts  are  in  use,  these 
should  be  changed  gradually  for  modern  texts.  The 
change  should  be  made  at  the  close  rather  than  during 
the  school  year,  and  always  with  the  privilege  of 
exchanging  displaced  books  for  new  adoptions  at  the 
usual  rate  of  exchange.  When  a  text  covers  two 
years  of  work  it  is  well  the  first  year  to  make  the  ex- 
change only  in  the  beginning  class  in  the  subject  and 
complete  the  adoption  of  the  new  text  the  second 
year.  Adoption  of  a  text  must  always  be  by  formal 
action  of  the  Board  of  Education,  and  should  be  on 
the  recommendation  of  the  superintendent, 
(q)  Some  general  supplies  are  usually  furnished  by 
the  district  instead  of  being  purchased  by  pupils,  such 
as  construction  paper,  drawing  paper,  pens,  ink,  and 


MANUAL  FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS        89 

sometimes  penmanship  practice  paper  and  examina- 
tion paper.  Usually,  schools  furnish  also  half  the 
Readers  in  the  grades,  as  supplementary  sets,  and 
some  furnish  sets  of  Music  and  Drawing  books  for 
each  grade. 

(r)  Owing  to  the  arrangement  of  the  building  some 
schools  find  it  necessary  or  expedient  to  seat  the 
Grammar  School  with  the  High  School.  In  such 
case,  a  good  recitation  plan  is  to  make  the  Grammar 
School  recitation  periods  equal  in  time  to  the  High 
School  periods  and  use  the  last  ten  or  fifteen  minutes 
of  the  period  for  study  of  the  following  day's  assign- 
ment. 

(s)  Regular  monthly  meetings  of  the  Board  of  Edu- 
cation should  be  encouraged,  and  the  superintendent 
should  attend  each  meeting.  At  these  meetings  the 
superintendent  should  report  the  progress  of  the 
school  and  make  needed  recommendations, 
(t)  The  superintendent  of  a  small  school,  as  well  as 
the  superintendent  of  a  larger  school  system,  should 
assume  the  duties  of  a  superintendent  as  far  as  his 
time  permits.  He  should  seek  to  train  his  inexperi- 
enced teachers  in  service  and  assign  general  duties. 
In  employment  of  teachers  he  should  be  consulted  by 
the  Board  of  Education,  and  he  should  have  general 
administrative  and  supervisory  control  of  the  school, 
(u)  While  the  organization  of  the  High  School  de- 
partment calls  for  more  teachers  for  the  same  sized 
group  of  pupils  than  in  the  Elementary  departments, 
owing  to  laboratory  periods  and  longer  recitation 
periods,  care  should  be  exercised  that  the  school  shall 
not  be  made  top-heavy.  In  some  schools  as  many 
teachers  are  found  employed  for  the  high  school  as 
for  the  grades,  when  there  is  but  one-fourth  the  en- 
rollment in  the  high  school. 


90        MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

(v)  While  in  the  small  school  system  the  superin- 
tendent must  teach  classes  in  the  High  School  depart- 
ment, he  should  not  allow  his  interest  to  center  on  this 
department  to  the  neglect  of  the  grade  work, 
(w)  The  usual  length  of  the  school  year  is  nine 
months,  extending  from  the  first  Monday  in  Septem- 
ber until  about  the  last  of  May.  Usually  one  or  two 
weeks  of  vacation  are  given  during  the  Christmas  holi- 
day season  and  sometimes  one  week  at  Easter  time. 
Some  schools  prefer  not  to  have  a  Spring  vacation,  as 
it  induces  older  pupils  to  withdraw  from  school  to 
work.  A  few  schools  employ  teachers  for  nine  and 
one-half  months,  making  the  school  year  that  long. 
For  holidays  and  examination  days  about  ten  days  of 
time  are  taken  from  the  regular  school  work,  so  by 
this  plan  nine  months  of  school  in  the  clear  is  left, 
(x)  Schools  are  often  hampered  by  closing  of  school 
at  time  of  epidemic.  Sometimes  this  may  be  neces- 
sary, but  more  often  not  necessary.  Some  schools,  to 
prevent  closing  of  school  for  contagious  disease,  have 
organized  at  such  times  as  follows : 

1.  Have  a  physician  or  nurse  explain  to  assembled 
teachers  how  to  discern  symptoms  of  children  af- 
fected by  the  disease. 

2.  Have  each  teacher  observant  and  send  home 
any  suspected  pupil.    The  pupil  must  then  present 
a    physician's    certificate    of    freedom    from    the 
disease,  when  returning.     When   a  child  is  sent 
home  thus,  the  health  physician   is   immediately 
notified. 

3.  No  child  from  a  home  where  there  is  sickness 
is  allowed  in  school  without  a  physician's  certifi- 
cate that  the  sickness  is  not  of  a  contagious  nature. 

4.  Whenever  a  pupil  is  absent  from  school,  the 
health  physician  is  notified  and  the  pupil  not  al- 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS        91 

lowed  to  return  without  an  examination  by  a  physi- 
cian or  a  nurse. 

The  advocates  of  this  plan  claim  it  is  more  ef- 
fective in  controlling  a  contagious  disease,  as  all  sus- 
picious cases  are  thus  discovered  and  investigated 
where  they  would  not  be  discovered  if  school  were  not 
in  session. 

(y)  How  to  prevent  tardiness  and  absence  is  always 
a  problem.  Two  methods  are  used  to  deal  with  the 
problem : 

1.  In  case  of  absence  or  tardiness,  the  pupil  is  re- 
quired to  present  a  written  excuse  from  the  parent. 
It  is  difficult  to  prevent  bogus  excuses  being  used, 
and  again,  some  delinquent  children  find  it  easy 
to  obtain  excuses  from  the  indulgent  parent. 

2.  In  case  of  absence  or  tardiness,  to  require  a  writ- 
ten excuse  from  the  superintendent.     In  case  of 
doubt,  the  superintendent  can  require  his  written 
excuse  to  be  countersigned  by  the  parent. 

(z)  The  matter  of  punishment  is  a  delicate  one.  Most 
state  laws  permit  a  teacher  to  inflict  corporal  punish- 
ment, although  a  Board  of  Education  may  prohibit  it 
locally.  Some  "Boards"  allow  the  superintendent,  but 
not  the  teachers,  to  use  such  punishment.  Some 
schools  establish  the  rule  that  no  teacher  may  inflict 
corporal  punishment  on  a  pupil  except  in  the  presence 
of  another  teacher  or  the  superintendent. 


92        MANUAL  FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

CHAPTER  IX 

The  Problem  of  Supervision 

The  subject  of  supervision  in  a  system  of  schools  is 
of  so  much  importance  that  it  seems  to  merit  a  separate 
discussion.  Of  the  three  functions  to  perform  devolving 
upon  the  executive  head  of  a  school  system,  organization 
is  the  first  to  consider,  since  this  must  be  established  first 
of  all.  Work  should  be  well  organized  before  it  can 
properly  function.  After  being  organized,  however,  not 
much  attention  need  be  centered  upon  this  function.  Ad- 
ministration, the  second  function  in  school  management, 
has  to  do  with  general  duties  in  matters  of  the  school. 
Organization  is  creating  a  machine  and  administration  is 
running  the  machine.  Supervision,  however,  the  last  to 
consider,  might  be  compared  to  feeding  the  machine  and 
examining  the  product.  This  must  receive  constant  at- 
tention so  long  as  the  machine  is  running.  Supervision 
is  the  real  professional  end  of  school  management  and  is 
the  real  test  of  a  good  superintendent. 

The  Measure  of  Efficiency.  No  doubt  the  greatest 
lack  in  proper  school  management  on  the  part  of  the 
superintendent  is  found  in  the  matter  of  supervision.  This 
may  not  be  the  fault  of  the  superintendent,  since  often 
his  duties  are  so  numerous  that  he  does  not  have  time 
to  properly  supervise  the  work  of  his  school.  In  a  small 
school  system  much  of  his  time  is  taken  up  with  instruc- 
tion in  the  high  school  department.  This  work,  together 
with  the  general  administrative  duties,  occupies  so  much 
of  his  time  that  he  can  not  properly  supervise  his  school. 
He  should,  however,  so  systematize  his  work  that  he  may 
be  able  to  supervise  the  work  of  each  teacher  enough,  at 
least,  to  have  an  intelligent  understanding  of  the  work 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS        93 

being  done.  The  minimum  should  be  the  visiting  of  each 
teacher's  classroom  work  one  recitation  period  per  week. 
In  a  small  school  system  employing  not  more  than  a 
dozen  teachers,  where  the  superintendent  may  come  in 
daily  contact  with  teachers  in  the  building,  this  one  period 
is  probably  sufficient.  No  teacher  should  be  entirely 
slighted  and,  on  the  other  hand,  supervision  by  an  inex- 
perienced superintendent  may  be  overdone,  since  the 
teacher  understands  the  work  of  her  department  better 
than  the  superintendent  does. 

The  inexperienced  superintendent  in  visiting  a  class- 
room should  not  attempt  too  much  direction  of  the  work, 
but  should  learn  from  his  experienced  teacher  the  pur- 
pose and  method  of  the  work  conducted.  Gradually  he 
will  become  able  to  offer  some  suggestions  of  value,  but 
he  should  not  assume  that  it  is  a  duty  in  every  case  to 
offer  suggestions  or  criticisms. 

Method  of  Supervision.  It  has  been  suggested  that 
the  superintendent  should  visit  the  classroom  of  each 
teacher  one  period  per  week  as  a  minimum.  At  times  it 
may  be  valuable  for  him  to  be  in  the  room  during 
the  study  period  or  the  period  of  general  exercises  as 
well,  so  that  he  may  get  an  idea  of  how  all  the  work 
is  being  conducted.  Some  time  during  the  day,  after 
such  a  visit,  the  superintendent  should  seek  oppor- 
tunity to  confer  with  the  teacher  regarding  the  work 
observed.  He  may  properly  ask  questions  concerning 
the  purpose  of  this  or  that  method  employed,  the  ability 
of  this  or  that  pupil,  etc.  The  first  thing  he  should  seek 
is  information  regarding  the  work  the  teacher  has  in 
charge. 

Occasionally  there  is  a  superintendent  who  thinks  it 
is  his  duty  in  supervising  the  work  of  a  classroom  to 
take  charge  of  the  class  exercise  and  conduct  it  himself 


94        MANUAL  FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

so  as  to  show  the  teacher  his  method  of  presenting  the 
lesson.  This  is  a  dangerous  thing  to  do,  especially  if 
the  teacher  is  experienced  and  the  superintendent  inex- 
perienced, and  it  is  usually  not  at  all  necessary.  In 
general,  a  superintendent  in  visiting  a  classroom  should 
keep  himself  in  the  background  so  as  not  unduly  to  attract 
the  attention  of  the  pupils.  In  this  way  the  work  will 
proceed  more  normally,  and  that  is  what  the  superin- 
tendent desires,  in  order  to  get  a  true  measure  of  the 
work. 

Not  all  the  supervision  work  of  a  superintendent,  how- 
ever, is  done  in  the  classroom.  He  sometimes  writes 
examination  questions  for  the  students  and  reviews  the 
examination  papers  after  they  have  been  graded  by  the 
teacher.  This  is  an  excellent  way  to  find  out  the  ability 
of  the  pupils  and  the  painstaking  care  of  the  teacher  in 
the  matter  of  this  written  work.  Again  a  good  plan  is 
to  require  teachers  to  prepare  a  daily  or  weekly  plan 
book  of  recitations.  This  is  a  benefit  to  the  teachers  as 
well  as  to  the  superintendent.  The  superintendent  should 
also  examine  class  record  books  and  class  registers  to 
see  that  they  are  carefully  kept. 

Another  effective  means  of  keeping  in  touch  with 
the  work  of  the  different  departments  is  the  holding  of 
regular  meetings  of  teachers.  These  are  usually  held 
after  school  or  in  the  evening  for  an  hour,  monthly  or 
semi-monthly.  These  meetings  may  be  given  over  to 
discussion  of  local  school  problems  or  for  a  study  of 
methods  of  presenting  the  work.  Occasionally  it  may  be 
well  for  the  meeting  to  be  turned  into  a  social  meeting. 
In  a  smaller  system  of  schools  it  is  urgent  that  all  the 
teachers  meet  together  in  these  meetings  instead  of  the 
meetings  being  held  in  groups.  This  brings  the  teachers 
into  contact  and  places  them  in  their  true  relation  to  the 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS        95 

system.     The  superintendent  should  preside  at  all  such 
meetings. 

Points  to  Observe  in  Classroom  Supervision.  In  en- 
tering a  classroom  the  superintendent's  attention  will 
naturally  be  directed  to  many  things.  A  few  are  here 
mentioned  as  being  of  decided  importance. 

1.  The  superintendent  should  note  the  material  as- 
pects of  the  room,  that  is,  to  discover  whether  things 
are  in  order  or  whether  the  room  presents  a  slovenly  and 
disordered  appearance. 

2.  The  personal  appearance  of  both  teacher  and  pupils 
should  be  noticed.     The  superintendent  should  not  be 
too  critical  on  these  points,  of  course,  but  if  the  pupils 
are    accustomed    to    appear    in    the    school    room    with 
uncombed   hair,   with   slovenly   attire,    etc.,   this   should 
be  called  to  the  attention  of  the  teacher  and  steps  taken 
to  remedy  the  matter.    However,  the  teacher  may  some- 
times be  open  to  criticism  in  the  matter  of  her  dress  and 
this,  of  course,  must  be  criticised  in  a  tactful  way. 

3.  The  deportment  of  the  room  should  receive  atten- 
tion.   This  does  not  mean  that  there  should  be  no  noise, 
but   that   there   should   not  be   confusion   or   purposeful 
mischief  discernible.    The  true  school  atmosphere  shows 
a  busy  attitude  on  the  part  of  all  concerned.     Interest 
in  study  or  in  the  class  exercise  should  prevail. 

4.  The   personality   of  the   teacher  should   be   taken 
into  account.    Her  manner  of  speaking  to  the  pupils  and 
her   power  of   leadership   are   important.     The   teacher 
should  be  a  leader  in  all  the  work  of  the  room. 

5.  The  superintendent  should  note  whether  the  teacher 
has  initiative  in  her  work  or  is  simply  copying  in  her 
method  of  handling  it.     Severe  criticism  sometimes  in- 
hibits initiative  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  and  the  super- 


96        MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

intenclent  should  be  careful  to  encourage  initiative  rather 
than  to  prohibit  it. 

6.  Preparation  of  the  teacher  for  her  daily  work  as 
evidenced   by  her  manner  of  conducting  the   recitation 
and  the  assignment  of  lessons  should  be  carefully  noted. 
If  it  is  found  the  teacher  lacks  such  preparation  it  is  time 
for  a  serious  conference  and  a  reform  in  her  method. 

7.  By  carefully  listening  to  the  recitation  the  super- 
intendent should  note  whether  the  teacher  employs  good 
methods  in  questioning.   The  art  of  questioning  is  impor- 
tant in  conducting  a  recitation.     Some  teachers  have  a 
way  of  overawing  pupils  to  the  extent  that  they  cannot 
recite  even  what  they  may  know.     Other  teachers  have 
a  way  of  drawing  from  the  pupils  knowledge  which  they 
did  not  know  they  possessed. 

How  to  Assist  the  Teacher.  Rarely  should  a  teacher 
be  criticised  or  given  suggestions  concerning  her  work 
before  the  class,  since  this  reflects  upon  the  teacher  so 
that  she  may  lose  the  respect  of  her  pupils.  A  private 
conference  at  intermission  time  or  after  school  is  better. 
Sometimes  a  teacher's  faults  may  be  discussed  in  the 
teachers'  meeting  in  a  way  to  assist  the  teacher,  with- 
out permitting  the  matter  to  become  personal. 

Occasionally  a  teacher  lacking  in  method  of  con- 
ducting her  work  may  receive  valuable  aid  by  visiting 
another  room  where  a  strong  experienced  teacher  is 
in  charge.  Sometimes  a  visiting  day  is  permitted  a 
school  to  visit  some  neighboring  school,  but  this  plan 
is  not  to  be  encouraged,  since  it  often  brings  criticism 
upon  the  school.  If  a  visiting  day  be  given,  it  is  better 
that  one  or  two  teachers  at  a  time  are  excused  for  this 
purpose  and  that  they  report  at  teachers'  meeting  the 
items  they  have  learned  from  such  a  visit.  The  teacher 
of  a  school  should  not  have  the  attitude  of  demanding  a 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS        97 

day  for  visiting  other  schools  to  learn  methods,  etc., 
any  more  than  a  carpenter  constructing  a  building  should 
require  of  his  contractor  that  he  be  given  a  day  to  learn 
how  to  construct  the  building. 

In  the  work  of  supervision  a  superintendent  should 
seek  to  learn  the  abilities  and  limitations  of  each  teacher 
in  his  school.  He  should  have  a  helpful  rather  than  a 
critical  attitude  and  should  not  become  dictatorial  or 
autocratic  in  his  supervision.  He  always  should  have 
an  open  mind  for  learning  the  best  things  and  then  he 
should  be  able  to  apply  the  best  methods  throughout  his 
school. 

Punishments.  This  subject  legitimately  may  be  in- 
cluded under  the  head  of  supervision,  since  many  cases 
of  discipline  are  brought  to  the  office  for  decision  and 
adjustment.  A  whole  book  might  be  written  on  the 
subject  of  punishments,  but  a  few  words  only  must 
suffice  here. 

The  matter  of  corporal  punishment  must  always  be 
considered,  although  we  hear  less  concerning  this  than 
formerly.  In  most  states  corporal  punishment  is  still 
permitted  in  schools  and  probably  sometimes  this  may 
become  the  best  method.  It  is  not,  however,  the  best 
method  with  all  pupils,  and  each  case  of  discipline  pre- 
sents a  problem  in  itself.  Of  course,  corporal  punish- 
ment should  never  be  so  severe  as  to  endanger  the  health 
of  the  pupil,  and  it  is  safer  if  no  teacher  be  permitted  to 
inflict  corporal  punishment  on  a  pupil  unless  in  the 
presence  of  another  teacher,  the  superintendent  or  the 
principal.  In  some  schools  it  may  be  the  custom  for  the 
superintendent  to  administer  such  punishment  rather 
than  the  teacher.  In  general,  however,  if  any  punish- 
ment must  be  inflicted  upon  a  pupil  it  should  be 
inflicted  by  the  one  under  whose  authority  the  misde- 


98        MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

meaner  was  committed.  Naturally,  then,  a  breach  of 
rules  within  the  school  room  should  be  attended  to  by 
the  teacher  in  charge,  while  misconduct  on  the  school 
ground  naturally  falls  to  the  superintendent  or  principal 
of  the  building. 

Sometimes  deprivation  or  forfeiture  of  privilege  is 
administered  as  a  punishment,  and  this  may  be  very 
effective.  When  a  pupil  violates  a  privilege  it  is  but 
natural  the  privilege  should  be  taken  from  him  for  a 
season.  This  is  sometimes  carried  to  such  an  extent, 
however,  that  the  privilege  of  intermission  is  so  often 
taken  from  a  pupil  that  he  looks  upon  the  school  room 
as  a  prison,  and  the  appreciation  of  the  school  is  thereby 
lessened.  Deprivation  of  classroom  privilege  or  even 
the  school  room  privilege  might  be  a  better  antidote 
for  such  conduct. 

In  general  we  may  say  that  if  punishment  must  be 
administered  it  should  be  such  punishment  as  best  fits 
the  offense,  and  it  is  better  if  rules  are  not  so  laid  that 
a  teacher  is  bound  to  administer  punishment  to  a  pupil 
at  any  time.  Punishment  should  not  be  for  the  purpose 
of  injuring  the  pupil  but  rather  for  the  reform  of  the 
pupil  and  the  good  of  the  school  room. 

An  extreme  mode  of  punishment  is  temporary  or 
permanent  exclusion  from  school.  No  teacher  should 
have  the  power  of  such,  and  even  a  superintendent  must 
consult  his  board  of  education  before  such  punishment 
is  meted  out  to  any  pupil,  except  dismissal  for  the  day 
or  a  portion  of  the  day. 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS        99 

CHAPTER  X 

Organizations  in  the  School,  and  Social  Center 
Activities 

Recently  there  has  been  a  rapid  development  of 
school  organizations.  This  has  been  largely  in  the  high 
schools,  but  the  grades  also  have  a  share.  The  organi- 
zations have  come  from  both  an  insistent  demand  on  the 
part  of  students  and  pupils  and  a  recognition  by  teachers 
of  the  adaptation  of  organizations  to  educational  proc- 
esses. The  organizations  probably  have  a  legitimate 
place  in  education  and  in  school  administration,  but 
undoubtedly  schools  are  often  over-organized,  just  as 
society  is  at  present  over-organized.  Besides  his  regular 
class  organization,  a  student  has  usually  time  for  no 
more  than  one  other. 

Organizations  are  of  doubtful  value  below  the  Gram- 
mar Department.  Organizations  to  raise  ideals  of  life 
and  to  assist  in  teaching  good  citizenship,  such  as  the 
Boy  Scout  organization  and  The  Camp  Fire  Girls'  organi- 
zation, are  well  adapted  to  Grammar  School  or  Junior 
High  School.  Much  of  the  demand  for  class  organiza- 
tion comes  from  imitating  upper  classes  rather  than 
from  student  nature.  Many  school  men  do  not  encourage 
class  organizations  except  the  last  two  years  of  the 
Senior  High  School.  The  first  two  years  of  high  school 
are  better  named  "Ninth  grade"  and  "Tenth  grade," 
rather  than  "Freshman  class"  and  "Sophomore  class." 
Class  organizations  are  by  nature  social,  and  are  apt  to 
go  to  extremes  in  a  social  way  unless  carefully  held  in 
restraint.  Each  class  organization  should  have  a  faculty 
representative  as  counsellor  and  chaperone,  and  it  is 
usually  better  that  such  representative  be  appointed  by 
the  high  school  principal  or  the  superintendent  rather 


100       MANUAL   FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

than  to  be  elected  by  the  class.  Class  meetings  should 
always  be  held  in  the  school  building  and  the  faculty 
representative  should  attend  all  meetings. 

Such  organizations  as  literary  societies,  musical  soci- 
eties, athletic  associations,  etc.,  are  for  special  purposes 
and  should  not  develop  into  social  organizations.  Except 
the  class  organization,  which  is  naturally  limited  to  mem- 
bers of  the  class,  school  organizations  should  be  demo- 
cratic, allowing,  as  members,  apy  students  in  the  high 
school  who  desire  to  join.  If  an  admission  fee  is  charged, 
it  should  be  placed  low  enough  to  bar  no  member  of  the 
school.  As  most  states  have  laws  prohibiting  or  per- 
mitting boards  of  education  to  prohibit  secret  organi- 
zations among  high  school  students,  it  is  plainly  evident 
that  these  should  not  be  tolerated  in  any  public  school. 

Social  Center  Activities.  The  school's  relation  to  the 
community  is  becoming  more  vital,  and  boards  of  edu- 
cation are  demanding  more  and  more  a  superintendent 
who  takes  an  interest  in  community  affairs  and  is  will- 
ing to  be  a  community  leader  in  matters  educational.  A 
spirit  of  service  for  the  community  is  also  a  valuable  asset 
to  a  teacher.  The  following  are  suggestive  items  in  mak- 
ing the  school  a  community  factor  and  the  school  building 
a  community  center: 

(a)  The  superintendent  should  always  make  his  home 
in  the  community  which  he  serves,  and  he  will  do 
well  to  take  an  active  interest,  so  far  as  his  regular 
school  duties  will  permit,  in  the  legitimate  activities 
of  the  community. 

(b)  Teachers  should  room  and  board  in  the  com- 
munity, at  least  during  the  school  week.    They  should 
likewise  have  an  active  interest  in  community  wel- 
fare.    The  practice  by  some  teachers  of  leaving  the 
community  every  Friday  evening  and  returning  the 


MANUAL  FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS       |p.l 

following  Monday  morning  is  usually  detrimental  to 
the  strength  of  the  teacher  in  the  community. 

(c)  Teachers  will  enhance  their  worth  and  the  appre- 
ciation of  the  community  if  they  visit  the  homes  of 
their  pupils  and   interest  the  parents  in  the  school 
work. 

(d)  The  school  should  be  made  a  community  center. 
The  following  are  suggestive  ways: 

1.  By   occasionally   having   a    "go-to-school   day'* 
for  patrons. 

2.  By  having  an  annual  exhibit  day  and  evening, 
for  the  public,  and  through  the  pupils  have  per- 
sonal invitations  sent.     Music  may  be  furnished, 
lunches   served,  or  other  means   used   as   special 
attraction. 

3.  By  occasionally  giving  public  evening  programs 
by    pupils   and   teachers.      In    some    communities 
schools  successfully  maintain  a  public  evening  lec- 
ture course,  or  a  winter  chautauqua  course. 

4.  By  having  pupils,  rooms  or  classes  appear  upon 
the  program   of  community  gatherings,  or  assist 
in  parades,  etc.,  on  special  occasions. 

5.  By  public  school   athletic,   musical   or   literary 
contests. 

6.  By  organizing  and  maintaining  a  parent-teacher 
association. 

7.  By  annual  presentation  of  a  class  or  school  play. 

8.  By  public  graduating  exercises.    These  are  more 
effective  if  given  without  admission  fee. 

9.  By  placing  the  school  building  at  the  disposal 
of  patrons  for  legitimate  public  gatherings. 

10.  By  using  the  building  for  social  gatherings  of 
the  students,  always  under  direct  supervision  of 
the  superintendent. 


.l!2. _  MANUAL.  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

With  the  demand  for  the  school  as  a  community  center 
and  as  a  live  educational  factor  in  the  community,  there 
has  also  been  brought  forward  the  idea  of  extension  serv- 
ice by  the  school  throughout  the  district,  much  as  state 
colleges  carry  extension  work  to  communities  through- 
out the  state.  By  means  of  federal,  state  and  local  aid, 
night  schools  are  being  established  in  some  cities  to 
carry  the  work  of  the  school  to  the  adult  population. 
Part-time  schools  are  also  being  established  to  reach 
children  of  school  age  who  for  some  reason  left  school 
before  completing  the  course.  Home  Economics  depart- 
ments are  serving  hot  lunches  to  pupils  and  giving  dem- 
onstrations for  the  benefit  of  mothers  and  laboring  girls. 
Agriculture  classes  are  testing  seeds  for  farmers  and 
testing  milk  from  individual  cows,  etc.  All  this  makes 
added  responsibility  for  those  responsible  for  the  school, 
but  it  also  renders  the  school  a  more  vital  factor  in  the 
community  and  makes  the  citizens  of  the  community 
more  appreciative  of  the  school. 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS      103 

CHAPTER  XI 
Putting  Over  a  Building  Campaign 

General  Statement.  It  is  the  unusual  experience  of  a 
superintendent,  who,  at  least  once  in  his  career,  does  not 
have  the  experience  of  conducting  a  campaign  for  a  new 
school  building,  and  some  superintendents  go  through  a 
building  campaign  several  times.  School  board  members 
also  have  a  large  part  in  conducting  such  campaigns  in  a 
district.  While  every  district  has  its  distinct  problem  in 
the  success  of  such  a  campaign,  a  few  general  principles 
which  apply  to  all  may  be  stated. 

Preparing  the  Way.  Bonds  for  a  new  building  must 
be  submitted  to  the  qualified  voters  of  the  district  for 
approval,  and  a  majority  of  votes  cast  must  be  favorable 
to  the  issue  if  the  bond  issue  be  carried.  The  submis- 
sion of  the  question  must  be  done  by  the  Board  of  Edu- 
cation. Preliminary  steps  are  necessary.  First  of  all 
the  community  must  be  informed  of  the  need  and  edu- 
cated to  the  advantage  to  be  gained  by  providing  a  new 
building,  whether  the  new  building  be  provided  as  an 
additional  building  or  to  replace  an  old,  inadequate  build- 
ing. It  is  better  if  the  information  be  given  some  time 
in  advance,  and  not  sprung  upon  the  community  just 
previous  to  the  vote.  The  need  should,  of  course,  be  real 
and  not  imaginary.  The  community  should  be  taken  into 
confidence,  and  no  exaggerated  statements  of  the  need 
be  permitted. 

Method  of  Procedure.  The  superintendent  and  the 
Board  of  Education  should  discuss  at  length  and  in  ad- 
vance the  size  and  type  of  building  needed,  the  approxi- 
mate cost,  the  proper  location  and  the  time  for  the  vote 


104      MANUAL   FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

on  the  proposition.  The  bonded  indebtedness  of  the  dis- 
trict at  the  time  should  be  taken  into  account  in  making 
the  estimate,  as  well  as  the  legal  limitations  of  the  district. 
A  survey  should  be  made  of  the  probable  future  needs  of 
the  district.  If  the  district  does  not  have  a  regular  attor- 
ney a  legal  advisor  should  be  provided,  so  that  no  false 
steps  will  invalidate  the  action. 

Some  districts  employ  an  architect  to  draw  up  tenta- 
tive plans  for  the  proposed  building,  and  a  cut  is  secured 
in  advance  and  used  in  the  local  press.  This  gives  reality 
to  the  project  and  interests  the  voters.  A  large  sketch 
may  be  prepared  and  exhibited  in  a  store  window  or 
in  some  other  conspicuous  place.  Usually  an  architect 
will  do  the  preliminary  work  of  this  kind  without  requir- 
ing compensation,  in  case  the  vote  is  not  favorable  to 
the  proposition.  He  is  willing  to  take  this  chance  in 
order  to  secure  the  work  as  architect  in  case  the  issue 
is  successful.  Another  plan  is  to  leave  the  choosing  of 
an  architect  and  plans  for  the  building  until  the  election 
has  been  held  and  the  issue  favorably  decided. 

Choosing  an  Architect.  This  is  rather  an  important 
matter.  In  either  of  the  above  plans  an  architect  may 
be  chosen  somewhat  competitively,  by  allowing  several 
architects  to  interview  the  "Board."  Each  architect  pre- 
sents a  plan  for  the  proposed  building.  The  terms  of 
the  architect,  the  proposed  type  of  building  and  especially 
his  reputation  should  be  taken  into  account.  Not  only 
a  general  reputation  as  architect,  but  a  reputation  espe- 
cially as  an  architect  for  school  buildings  should  be  con- 
sidered. It  may  be  possible  in  some  instances  for  mem- 
bers of  the  Board  of  Education  to  see  school  buildings 
already  erected  by  certain  architects.  Arthitects,  in  gen- 
eral, charge  the  same  percentage  rate  as  fee  in  construct- 
ing a  building,  but  some  architects  present  two  plans. 


MANUAL  FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS       105 

one  for  complete  supervision  of  the  work  and  one  for 
local  supervision  by  a  competent  person  chosen  by  the 
Board  of  Education. 

In  regard  to  the  employment  of  an  architect  one  cau- 
tion ought  to  be  suggested.  Occasionally  an  architect 
has  a  certain  type  of  building  he  prefers  to  erect,  and 
he  attempts  to  force  this  style  of  building  on  each  local 
district  by  which  he  may  be  employed.  Local  conditions 
differ  and  such  type  of  building  may  not  be  desirable  for 
certain  districts.  Boards  of  education  should  have  minds 
of  their  own  regarding  the  type  of  building  needed.  It 
is  a  wise  plan  in  advance  for  the  superintendent  and  all 
members  of  the  Board  of  Education  to  visit  some  neigh- 
boring modern  school  buildings  and  ascertain  the  type 
of  building  best  suited  to  the  local  needs. 

The  Campaign.  When  it  is  finally  decided  by  the 
Board  of  Education  that  the  issue  shall  be  placed  before 
the  people  of  the  district,  the  amount  of  bonds  to  call  for 
and  the  general  plan  of  building  desired  are  important 
matters  to  consider.  The  time  to  set  for  the  vote  to  be 
taken  is  important.  If  indications  are  that  the  vote  will 
be  close  and  the  result  doubtful,  these  matters  become 
the  more  important.  Often  the  vote  on  the  issue  is 
taken  at  the  annual  meeting  for  the  election  of  new  board 
members.  This  has  the  advantage  of  capitalizing  on  the 
natural  interest  in  the  election  to  secure  a  large  vote. 
On  the  other  hand  the  contest  on  certain  candidates  may 
defeat  the  proposition.  The  opposition  may  place  as  can- 
didate a  popular  citizen  opposed  to  the  building  project, 
and  he  may  carry  with  him  votes  enough  to  defeat  the 
proposition.  In  such  case  it  would  be  better  to  vote 
on  the  issue  at  another  time  and  make  it  a  separate  issue. 

Legally  a  vote  on  a  bond  issue  must  be  advertised  a 
certain  number  of  weeks  in  advance.  This  period  should 


106      MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

be  used  as  a  period  of  publicity  and  of  education  of  the 
community  to  the  school  needs.  The  following  are  sug- 
gestive ways : 

(a)  Use  local  press.   Editors  are  usually  in  sympathy 
with  a  progressive  movement  for  the  schools.     Short 
statements  by  leading  citizens,  both  men  and  women, 
may  be  published  from  week  to  week. 

(b)  Local  pastors  may  be  induced  to  present  the  mat- 
ter to  their  congregations  or  allow  some  spokesman 
chosen  by  the  school  to  present  the  matter  to  the- 
congregation. 

(c)  A   mass   meeting   may   be   held   and   an   outside 
speaker  of  prominence  secured   to  give  an  address 
on  the  subject  of  "Better  Schools."     This  meeting 
should   be  open   to   questions  or  discussion  by  any 
citizen. 

(d)  Local  organizations  may  be  asked  to  send  one  or 
more  representatives  to  the  school  to  investigate  con- 
ditions and  report  their  findings  to  such  organization. 

(e)  A  publicity  committee  of  citizens  may  be  chosen 
by  the  local  "Board"  to  study  the  needs  and  present 
them  to  the  public. 

(f)  Occasionally  students  may  be  utilized  by  parades, 
etc.,  but  this  method  is  questionable,  as  it  may  react 
on  the  promoters  of  the  building  plan. 

(g)  The  town  may  be  districted  and  a  responsible 
person  chosen  in  each  district  to  agitate  the  matter 
in  such  district  and  interest  the  voters. 

(h)  Automobiles  and  other  conveyances  may  be  used 
to  bring  voters  to  the  polls. 

(i)  A  circular  of  information  may  be  issued  and  cir- 
culated in  the  community. 

In  all  this  the  main  thing  is  to  secure  the  interest 
of  the  voters  in  the  project  and  to  secure  a  maximum 
vote.  Usually  the  opposition  to  a  proposition  of  this 


MANUAL  FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS       107 

kind  is  organized  and  the  opposition  force  will  poll  a 
maximum  vote.  This  is  not  always  true  of  the  pro- 
ponents of  the  measure,  and  some  voters  really  in  favor 
of  the  project  are  apt,  through  partial  indifference  or 
a  feeling  that  the  measure  will  carry  anyway,  to  remain 
away  from  the  polls.  The  campaign  should  be  placed 
on  a  high  plane  and  the  endeavor  should  be  to  secure  a 
maximum  vote  of  the  district,  so  as  to  obtain  a  real 
public  expression  on  the  question.  If  conveyances  are 
offered  to  convey  voters  to  the  polls  who  otherwise  could 
not  well  go,  the  offer  should  be  made  to  all  voters,  regard- 
less of  whether  the  vote  is  to  be  affirmative  or  negative. 

After  the  Battle.  Of  course,  a  campaign  of  this  kind 
is  not  always  a  battle,  although  there  is  usually  some 
organized  opposition  to  bonding  the  district  for  a  school 
plant.  No  matter  how  mild  nor  how  fierce  the  contest 
may  have  been,  when  it  is  over  there  should  be  no  dis- 
play of  bonfires,  parades,,  etc.,  to  celebrate  victory.  This 
is  apt  to  leave  an  unnecessary  bitter  feeling.  The  great 
American  principle  of  "fair  play"  and  the  "rule  of  the 
majority"  should  prevail.  If  the  issue  is  lost,  no  bitter 
criticism  should  be  used,  but  a  steady  campaign  of  edu- 
cation may  go  on  so  that  the  matter  may  be  presented 
again  at  a  later  time.  If  the  issue  wins,  the  responsi- 
bility of  the  Board  of  Education  is  to  prepare,  through 
the  architect,  complete  plans  for  the  building  and  adver- 
tise for  bids  by  contractors.  Matters  should  be  pushed 
along  as  rapidly  as  consistent  with  material  plans.  The 
mistake  should  not  be  made  of  promising  to  the  district 
a  new  building  by  a  certain  date,  for  such  promise  can 
rarely  be  fulfilled  and  this  leaves  disappointment  and 
criticism. 


108       MANUAL  FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

CHAPTER  XII 
The  Teacher  and  Her  Work 

Importance  of  the  Teacher.  Without  the  teacher 
there  could  be  no  school.  No  matter  how  excellent  the 
school  plant,  how  complete  the  equipment,  or  how  nearly 
perfect  the  course  of  study,  these  could  not  function  in 
education  without  the  live  teacher  to  connect  it  all  with 
the  living  pupil.  Someone  has  estimated  that  the  teacher 
constitutes  85  per  cent  of  the  efficiency  of  the  school. 
It  is  of  course  impossible  to  evaluate  the  service  of  the 
teacher  numerically,  but  educators  and  laymen  alike  will 
agree  that  a  competent  and  willing  teacher  is  the  largest 
single  factor  in  bringing  education  to  the  child. 

Her  Attitude.  The  calling  of  the  teacher  is  perhaps 
the  most  unfortunate  from  one  standpoint  of  all  the 
professions.  Those  found  in  the  work  of  medicine,  law 
or  the  ministry  are  usually  there  because  they  feel  either 
a  strong  liking  for  the  work,  adaptability  to  it,  or  both 
combined.  They  are  also  in  the  profession  with  the 
intention  of  making  such  profession  a  life  work  and  a 
life  study.  This  is  not  true  to  the  same  extent  in  the 
profession  of  teaching.  Some  there  be,  it  is  true,  who 
have  a  natural  love  for  the  work,  a  conceived  adapta- 
bility to  it,  and  who  enter  the  profession  with  the  inten- 
tion of  making  teaching  a  life  pursuit.  This  number, 
however,  constitutes  the  small  minority  of  teachers. 

This  fact  shapes  to  a  large  extent  the  attitude  of 
the  teacher.  Many  teachers  go  into  the  work  as  a  tem- 
porary expedient,  and  because  of  the  large  number  of 
teachers  demanded,  this  will  probably  always  be  true. 
Indeed,  this  fact  may  not  be  an  unmitigated  evil.  Because 
of  it,  there  are  bright,  keen  young  men  and  women  who 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS       109 

spend  a  few  years  of  their  young,  enthusiastic,  energetic 
and  optimistic  lives  as  teachers  of  youth,  and  bring  thus 
to  the  schools  hope,  vigor  and  enthusiasm  that  is  worth 
while.  They  are  often  of  the  highly  ambitious  type; 
many  of  our  adult  social,  business  and  political  leaders  of 
today  have  taught  school  some  time,  and  they  often  ex- 
press a  longing  for  the  schoolroom  again. 

Preparation.  While  this  is  true  it  does  mean  that 
teachers  are  temporarily  drawn  into  schoolroom  work 
without  proper  preparation  for  it.  The  position  is  a 
stepping  stone  to  some  other  work  or  career,  hence  not 
enough  time  and  attention  is  given  to  scientific  prepara- 
tion for  teaching.  This  is  unfortunate  for  the  schools. 
Those  getting  higher  education  in  preparation  for  an- 
other profession  may  often  teach  some,  to  pay  for 
their  education  or  to  get  a  little  ready  money  in  ad- 
vance to  tide  over  the  "starving  period"  of  such  a  calling. 
This  may  be  a  fine  experience  for  the  young  man  or  the 
young  woman,  but  it  is  far  from  being  satisfactory  to  the 
pupils.  There  is  no  calling  more  in  need  of  careful  prep- 
aration and  thorough  training  than  the  calling  involving 
the  health,  the  intellect  and  the  spiritual  emotions  of 
boys  and  girls.  Developing  boys  and  girls  change  rapidly 
and  are  complex  in  their  structure.  A  teacher  should 
understand  all  phases  of  child  life  and  should  be  trained 
in  methods  of  dealing  with  the  child. 

The  only  possible  cure  for  this  condition  is  for  the 
schools  to  demand  properly  educated  and  properly  trained 
teachers.  Teachers  in  any  department  of  the  school 
should  not  only  be  educated  in  subject  matter,  but  should 
be  thoroughly  trained  in  methods  of  teaching  boys  and 
girls. 

Normal  schools  and  educational  departments  in  col- 
leges and  universities  now  provide  such  instruction  and 


110      MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

training  for  teachers.  It  only  remains  for  schools  exclu- 
sively to  employ  trained  teachers.  The  objection  may 
be  raised  that  the  expense  is  too  great.  If  a  school  system 
has  all  well  qualified  teachers,  these  teachers  can  accomp- 
lish far  more  than  can  untrained  teachers.  Trained  teach- 
ers are  therefore  cheaper  teachers. 

Special  Training.  Schools,  like  other  institutions,  are 
to  some  extent  becoming  a  field  for  specialists.  This  has 
not  as  yet,  however,  developed  to  any  alarming  extent. 
Boys  and  girls  have  the  same  mind  and  the  same  tem- 
perament whether  they  are  studying  Music  or  studying 
Arithmetic.  The  specialty  of  the  teacher,  therefore,  con- 
sists rather  in  the  special  knowledge  of  the  subject  to 
be  taught  than  in  the  special  method  of  teaching  the 
subject.  Of  course  the  varying  ages  of  children  have 
considerable  to  do  with  methods  of  teaching.  A  well 
trained  Primary  teacher  could  not  be  expected  to  do  as 
well  teaching  High  School  boys  and  girls.  There  is  no 
reason,  however,  why  a  trained  Primary  teacher  may 
not  be  able  to  teach  any  of  the  three  Primary  grades. 
Neither  is  there  any  reason  why  a  Grammar  room  teacher 
may  not  succeed  with  Intermediate  pupils,  nor  why  a 
High  School  teacher  may  not  be  able  to  teach  Grammar 
School  pupils. 

Since  correlation  is  so  important  a  factor  in  school 
work  there  is  some  danger  in  over-specialization.  When 
a  teacher  pleads  that  she  can  teach  but  a  certain  grade 
or  a  certain  subject,  suspicion  may  well  be  aroused  as 
to  the  value  of  such  teacher. 

This  should  not  be  understood  as  advocating  no  spe- 
cial training,  as  such  has  an  important  place.  Much  of 
such  specialization,  though,  is  rather  in  imagination  than 
in  fact.  Because  a  high  school  teacher  in  her  preparation 
has  majored  in  mathematics  is  no  reason  why  she  may 


MANUAL  FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS       111 

not  teach  some  History,  nor  becau'se  another  teacher  is 
interested  particularly  in  the  works  of  the  great  literary 
composers  is  it  proof  that  she  must  be  given  only  third 
and  fourth  year  English  and  no  Rhetoric  work  to  teach. 

A  Fallacy.  There  is  one  very  harmful  and  mistaken 
idea  often  held  by  boards  of  education,  superintendents 
and  teachers.  This  is  to  the  effect  that  for  high  school 
we  must  have  thoroughly  prepared  teachers,  college 
graduates,  but  for  grade  work  a  meager  preparation  is 
sufficient.  In  such  thinking  we  fail  to  recognize  that 
the  child  mind  is  just  as  much  a  problem  as  the  mind  of 
youth.  Indeed,  the  pre-adolescent  mind  of  grammar 
school  pupils  is  most  complicated.  In  the  lower  grades 
pupils  need  more  direction  and  help  than  in  the  high 
school,  and  here,  too,  it  is  doubly  important  that  right 
habits  of  work  and  study  be  fixed.  High  School  stu- 
dents are  able  to  direct  their  own  efforts  largely,  but 
this  is  not  true  of  lower  grade  pupils.  •  Grade  teachers 
may  possibly  not  need  so  much  training  in  the  college 
informational  subjects,  but  they  certainly  need  as  much 
knowledge  and  training  in  "Education"  and  in  pedagog- 
ical methods.  There  is  too  much  difference  in  the  size 
of  the  pay  envelopes  of  the  grade  teacher  and  the  high 
school  teacher.  Often  there  are  found  young,  inexperi- 
enced teachers  in  high  school,  just  out  of  college  and 
with  no  previous  teaching  experience,  drawing  a  much 
larger  salary  than  a  trained,  experienced  grade  teacher 
in  the  same  school.  Such  teacher  may  be  entitled  to 
some  consideration  for  her  extra  one  or  two  years  of 
college  work,  but  the  disparity  in  remuneration  is  too 
great.  Several  factors  enter  into  the  matter  of  salary 
schedule,  and  scholarship  is  but  one  of  these  factors. 


112      MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

Factors  of  Success.  Some  teachers  fail,  others  suc- 
ceed, while  still  others  become  but  mediocre  in  their 
work.  This  sometimes  happens  even  when  preparation 
for  the  work  is  on  a  par.  It  is  difficult  often  to  account 
for  the  difference,  but  some  factors  may  be  ascertained. 
The  degree  of  success  of  a  teacher  is  often  fixed  the  first 
year  of  her  teaching.  Her  environment  may  help  to 
make  or  to  mar  her  record.  No  doubt  it  is  a  great  help 
to  a  teacher  the  first  year  of  her  experience  to  work  with 
a  helpful  superintendent,  one  who  will  assist  her  in  solv- 
ing her  problems.  Here  is  an  excellent  opportunity  to 
receive  training  in  service.  The  attitude  of  the  teacher, 
on  the  other  hand,  may  be  such  as  to  refuse  proffered 
help.  Again  a  teacher  may  be  helped  by  associating  with 
other  successful  teachers  in  the  school. 

A  teacher  sometimes  fails  through  lack  of  strong  ini- 
tiative in  her  work.  She  rests  upon  what  she  has  learned 
in  her  training  school  and  expects  such  methods  learned 
to  solve  all  her  problms.  Again  she  may  fail  because 
of  lack  of  daily  preparation  in  lessons ;  indeed  this  is 
considered  a  prolific  cause  of  failure. 

Some  teachers  fail  of  full  success  because  of  lack  of 
the  spirit  of  co-operation  with  pupils,  parents,  teachers 
or  the  superintendent.  A  spirit  of  jealousy  prevents  the 
necessary  friendly  spirit.  Lack  of  sympathy  for  certain 
pupils  and  partiality  toward  others  often  enter  in,  to  a 
teacher's  detriment.  A  teacher  should  zealously  cultivate 
a  spirit  of  fairmindedness.  No  matter  how  we  feel  about 
it,  common  sense  should  make  us  realize  that  the  parent 
is  a  factor  in  the  education  of  the  child  and  that  he  is 
more  intensely  interested  in  the  child  than  the  teacher  can 
be.  A  parent  should  therefore  be  treated  courteously 
and  with  open  mind. 


MANUAL  FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS       113 

Attitude  Toward  School  Officials  and  the  Community. 
It  goes  without  saying  that  a  teacher  should  treat  school 
officials  with  consideration  and  respect.  They  are  always 
entitled  to  this,  and  teachers  generally  so  treat  them. 
Sometimes,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  not  shown  the 
co-operative  spirit  that  is  due.  The  teacher  is  one  factor 
in  the  school,  the  school  official  is  another.  For  best 
service  these  two  factors  must  harmonize. 

The  community,  the  patrons  of  the  school,  are  entitled 
not  only  to  respect  and  co-operation,  but  solicitous  con- 
sideration from  teachers.  They  are  the  ones  most  inter- 
ested in  the  children's  welfare  and  the  ones  who  sacri- 
fice most  that  they  may  receive  an  education.  Some- 
times a  teacher  in  a  certain  instance  is  provoked  into 
the  thought  that  the  parent  does  not  care  whether  the 
child  learns  anything  or  not.  There  may  be  such  cases, 
but  they  are  indeed  rare.  Parents  do  not  always  under- 
stand the  school,  its  purpose,  its  methods  or  the  acts 
of  the  teacher,  and  for  this  reason  they  may  give  unwar- 
ranted criticism.  Teachers  may  rest  assured,  however, 
that  they  have  interest  in  the  progress  of  their  children 
in  the  school. 

For  the  above  reason  it  is  important  that  early  in  the 
year  the  teacher  get  acquainted  with  the  parents  of  her 
pupils.  In  this  way  much  trouble  may  be  avoided  and 
better  co-operation  exist.  A  few  parents  will  come  to 
the  teacher  for  this  acquaintance,  but  in  most  cases  the 
teacher  must  go  to  the  parents,  for  many  fathers  and 
mothers  are  too  diffident  and  have  a  feeling  that  they 
would  not  be  welcome  at  the  school. 

It  is  a  deplorable  fact  that  there  is  coming  to  be  a 
feeling  these  later  days  among  some  groups  of  teachers 
that  a  teacher's  task  is  assigning  lessons,  hearing  recita- 
tions and  disciplining  the  pupils,  and  as  soon  as  the 
scheduled  school  day  comes  to  a  close  the  work  of  the 


114      MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

teacher  is  done  for  that  day  and  that  her  time  is  her  own 
until  the  next  day  at  8 :30  or  9 :00  o'clock  A.  M.  While  a 
teacher  should  take  some  time  each  day  for  relaxation, 
recreation  and  personal  enjoyment,  if  she  be  "true  blue" 
she  cannot  teach  school  by  the  clock.  A  child  may  need 
assistance  before  school  or  after  school  to  the  extent  that 
involves  his  failure  or  success  in  the  grade  and  in  his 
future  career.  Shall  a  teacher  deny  such  help?  A  physi- 
cian or  a  minister  could  as  well  refuse  assistance  to 
patient  or  parishioner  after  office  or  study  hours.  If 
teaching  is  to  be  a  profession  it  should,  like  other  profes- 
sions, be  put  on  the  basis  of  service  instead  of  on  the  basis 
of  maximum  hours  per  day.  Any  teacher  who  cannot 
subscribe  to  the  doctrine  of  service  should  leave  the  pro- 
fession. The  welfare  of  children  is  too  sacred  a  trust  to 
be  placed  in  the  hands  of  a  mercenary. 

Much  of  this  chapter  may  seem  to  be  in  criticism  of 
our  great  body  of  teachers  in  the  public  schools.  The 
author  does  not  intend  it  so,  for  he  has  the  highest  regard 
for  that  great  body  of  loyal  teachers  who  are  conscien- 
tiously serving  the  district  in  which  they  are  employed 
and  who  daily  by  kind  ministration  seek  to  make  the  way 
smoother  for  the  neglected  and  unfortunate  children 
under  their  charge.  The  criticism  is  only  for  that  small 
minority  of  teachers  who  have  not  yet  caught  the  vision 
of  true  service.  Rest  assured  these  will  learn  better  or 
fall  by  the  wayside,  for  school  officials  in  these  days  of 
expensive  education  are  more  and  more  going  to  demand 
of  teachers,  principals  and  superintendents  both  efficiency 
and  service.  This  ought  to  be  a  good  omen  for  the  true 
servant  of  the  schools,  for  she  will  then  get  her  full 
recognition. 

A  Noble  Calling.  Teachers  sometimes  may  seem  to 
be  unappreciated.  It  is  mostly  in  the  "seeming."  There 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS       115 

is  a  general  recognition  of  the  fact  that  the  teacher  stands 
next  to  the  parent  in  importance  to  the  child.  She  assists 
in  a  large  and  important  measure  in  molding  and  shaping 
the  future  of  the  children  placed  in  her  charge.  If  she  be 
a  real  teacher  it  may  truly  be  said  of  her  that  "The  future 
generation  shall  arise  to  call  her  'blessed/ ''  To  an  ex- 
perienced teacher  there  often  comes  a  former  pupil  with 
an  expression  of  appreciation  for  being  patiently  helped 
over  the  hard  places. 

The  teacher  is  an  important  part  of  the  school  system, 
and  will  always  be  such.  While  she  has  not  always  been 
recognized  at  her  true  value  in  the  way  of  salary  schedule, 
there  are  evidences  that  she  is  receiving  fairer  compensa- 
tion now  than  ever  before,  and  that  the  true,  prepared 
and  efficient  teacher  will  continue  to  receive  more  ade- 
quate salary.  Many  states  are  also  providing  annuities 
for  teachers  long  in  the  service,  so  the  profession  of 
teaching  is  being  placed  on  a  more  stable  basis.  There's 
a  better  day  ahead. 


116      MANUAL   FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

CHAPTER  XIII 
The  Board  of  Education 

In  another  chapter  the  functions  of  the  Board  of  Edu- 
cation have  been  discussed.  The  subject  of  the  "Board" 
itself,  however,  merits  further  discussion,  since  the  mem- 
bers of  the  "Board"  are  the  persons  who  really  make  pos- 
sible the  school.  The  Board  of  Education  is  the  inter- 
mediary between  tax  payers  and  the  pupils.  Through 
the  activities  of  the  "Board"  the  school  is  made  to 
function. 

Who  May  Be  Members.  Of  course  any  qualified 
voter  in  the  district  who  receives  an  election  or  an 
appointment  as  such  may  serve  as  member  of  the  Board 
of  Education.  This  does  not  indicate,  however,  that 
every  voter  is  qualified  to  render  good  service  in  that 
capacity.  The  service  calls  for  both  Ability  and  spirit  of 
service.  Good  business  ability  and  a  comprehension  of 
educational  problems  are  needed  to  render  good  service 
here.  This  does  not  mean  that  board  members  shall  be 
experienced  in  educational  work  nor  that  they  be  highly 
educated  men.  They  should  realize  the  needs  and  the 
possibilities  of  good  schools,  and  these  they  may  realize 
by  the  limitations  in  their  own  education. 

Sometimes  a  superintendent  will  boast  that  the  Board 
of  Education  in  his  district  consists  entirely  of  college 
graduates.  No  doubt  it  is  a  decided  advantage  if  one  or 
more  members  of  the  "Board"  be  highly  educated,  for 
thus  will  all  other  members  have  leadership  in  educa- 
tional policies.  Professional  men  therefore  usually  make 
good  "Board"  members.  What  is  needed  just  as  much, 
however,  is  ability  and  experience  in  business,  and  good 
business  men  should  also  be  sought  for  service  in  this 


MANUAL  FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS       117 

capacity.  School  is  a  business,  and  should  have  behind 
it  sound  business  policies.  Business  ability  is  not  neces- 
sarily, either,  confined  to  that  gained  in  commercial  enter- 
prises. Business  ability  may  be  gained  through  leader- 
ship in  organization  work  or  the  successful  handling  of 
large  problems  in  any  way.  The  two  qualifications,  busi- 
ness and  educational,  represented  on  a  Board  of  Educa- 
tion, whether  both  qualities  are  found  in  the  same  person 
or  in  different  members,  make  a  splendid  combination. 

It  was  formerly  considered  irrelevant  to  elect  as 
member  of  a  Board  of  Education  any  man  who  did  not 
himself  have  children  in  school.  Education  now,  how- 
ever, has  become  of  such  general  interest  that  this  dis- 
tinction need  not  obtain.  Ten  years  ago,  also,  "Board" 
members  were  almost  exclusively  composed  of  men.  To- 
day an  increasing  unmber  of  women  are  being  elected  to 
the  position.  There  is  no  good  reason  why  women  may 
not  become  valuable  ''Board"  members,  although  certain 
school  problems  are  of  such  a  nature  that  it  would  seem 
there  should  always  be  a  majority  of  men  as  members. 

In  some  communities  there  is  difficulty  in  inducing 
competent  men  to  become  members  of  the  Board  of 
Education,  either  through  fear  of  mistakes  and  criticism 
which  might  injure  such  men's  business,  or  because  their 
own  business  engrosses  their  whole  time  and  attention, 
so  that  they  feel  they  cannot  spare  the  time.  This  is 
most  unfortunate,  since  it  then  leaves  this  responsible 
position  to  mediocre  ability,  to  men  who  seek  the  place 
for  the  honor  involved  in  the  position ;  or  sometimes  even 
worse,  to  men  who  desire  the  position  to  enhance  their 
own  political  schemes.  There  is  no  official  position  in 
any  community  which  should  more  demand  the  efficient 
and  the  patriotic  service  of  its  best  citizens  than  a  posi- 
tion which  so  closely  touches  and  molds  the  lives  of  all 
the  children  of  the  community. 


118       MANUAL  FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

Shall  "Board"  Members  Be  Compensated  for  Service? 
Sometimes  we  hear  criticism  that  men  and  women  who 
give  valuable  time  and  spend  precious  energy  thus  for 
the  schools  should  not  be  paid  for  such  service.  It  is 
generally  considered,  on  the  other  hand,  that  the  schools 
get  a  higher  type  of  service  because  of  its  gratuitous 
nature.  The  position  in  most  districts  could  not  com- 
mand enough  compensation  to  interest  the  best  ability, 
and  politics  would  prevail  much  more  in  the  election  or 
appointment  of  members.  As  it  is,  men  and  women  do 
not  seek  the  position  for  compensation,  but  usually  accept 
it  through  interest  in  the  cause  of  education  or  as  an 
opportunity  to  serve  the  community. 

In  every  community  an  appeal  should  be  made  to  the 
competent  men  and  women  to  accept,  in  their  turn,  a  term 
or  two  as  members  of  the  Board  of  Education.  The 
author  served  as  superintendent  in  one  district  where 
the  members  of  the  local  Chamber  of  Commerce  had  a 
mutual  understanding  that  they  would  take  their  turns 
as  they  were  called  upon  to  serve  the  city  or  the  schools 
in  an  official  capacity  for  a  term  or  two,  and  would  not 
refuse  such  duty  when  asked  to  become  candidates  for 
election.  They  \vere  willing  to  do  this  as  a  civic  duty. 

It  would  be  well  if  a  law  might  be  passed,  however, 
permitting  expenses  and  per  diem  to  be  paid  all  board 
members,  or  at  least  a  representative  from  each  board  in 
the  state  to  a  conference  once  per  year  to  be  called  by 
county  or  state  officials.  This  would  enable  members  of 
the  "Board,"  without  financial  loss  to  themselves,  to  meet 
with  like  officials  from  other  schools  for  discussion  of 
mutual  problems,  and  to  receive  instruction  concerning 
their  duties.  It  would  also  make  possible  a  unity  of  pur- 
pose and  program  among  the  various  Boards  of  Educa- 
tion in  the  state. 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS       119 

Organization  of  the  "Board."  Mention  has  been  made 
briefly  in  a  previous  chapter  concerning  the  organization 
work.  Two  things  seem  important,  one  to  avoid  too 
much  machinery  in  the  organization.  In  large  city  dis- 
tricts, of  course,  the  work  must  be  complex,  but  in  the 
average  district  it  may  and  should  be  simple.  A  few 
committees  should  be  appointed,  but  the  vital  problems 
should  be  settled  by  the  "Board"  as  a  whole.  Special 
committees  may  be  appointed  as  occasion  demands,  for 
investigations,  and  the  results  of  such  investigations,  with 
recommendations,  should  be  brought  before  the  whole 
"Board"  for  determination.  The  other  important  con- 
sideration is  that  there  should  be  held  regular  periodic 
meetings  of  the  "Board"  to  pass  on  bills  against  the  dis- 
trict and  to  consider  business  matters  in  connection  with 
the  schools.  Such  meetings  are  usually  held  in  the  even- 
ing, although  they  may  be  held  at  any  time  most  con- 
venient to  all  members.  During  the  school  year  the  meet- 
ings should  be  held  at  a  time  when  the  superintendent 
may  be  present,  as  the  best  interests  of  the  schools  are 
served  when  board  members  and  superintendent  confer 
together.  In  most  districts  the  regular  meetings  should 
be  held  once  per  month,  and  in  larger  districts  perhaps 
more  often.  Of  course  a  special  meeting  may  be  called 
at  any  time. 

Occasionally  there  is  found  in  a  district  what  is  known 
as  a  "one-man  board."  One  member  of  the  board,  with 
more  experience  in  school  matters,  with  more  education, 
with  more  time  at  his  disposal  or  with  some  personal 
persuasion  some  way  assumes  most  of  the  direction  of 
school  affairs.  No  doubt  this  is  more  often  because  of 
neglect  by  other  members  in  assuming  their  share  of 
responsibility  than  by  assumption  of  authority  on  his 
part.  In  either  case,  however,  it  makes  a  bad  situation. 
It  is  a  clear  case  of  "two  heads  are  better  than  one."  In 


120      MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

carrying  out  the  decisions  of  the  "Board,"  such  may  well 
be  placed  in  one  man's  hands,  but  in  making  those  deci- 
sions all  members  should  have  a  part.  We  should  re- 
member that  the  Board  of  Education  is  primarily  a  legis- 
lative body,  not  an  executive  head,  so  all  important 
matters  should  be  determined  by  all  members.  The  body 
is  small  enough  so  that  this  may  well  be  done. 

Legal  Advice.  Because  the  duties  of  a  Board  of 
Education  often  involve  legal  matters  some  "Boards" 
employ  an  attorney  by  the  year,  that  is,  retain  his  services 
as  occasion  requires,  compensating  him  for  such  service 
as  he  may  render.  If  this  cannot  be  done  the  county 
attorney  may  be  consulted  on  occasion.  Usually  the 
county  superintendent  is  well  versed  in  school  laws  and 
will  be  glad  to  give  advice.  The  State  Department  of 
Instruction  on  request  is  always  glad  to  give  advice  on 
legal  matters. 

A  "Board"  will  do  well  at  all  times  to  keep  in  touch 
with  county  and  state  school  officials.  Valuable  litera- 
ture may  be  secured  from  this  source  and  standards  the 
more  easily  maintained.  School  officials  are  for  the  serv- 
ice of  schools  and  usually  welcome  opportunities  to 
assist  in  this  way. 

Suggested  Co-operative  Plan.  From  several  sources 
there  have  come  a  request  and  a  demand  for  reorganiza- 
tion of  school  control.  Such  school  people  believe  that 
teachers  themselves,  or  through  their  committee,  should 
have  some  voice  in  direct  administration  of  the  school, 
even  to  passing  upon  recommendations  of  teachers,  etc. 
They  somehow  resent  the  power  that  a  superintendent 
may  have.  Some  even  advocate  the  representation  of 
the  teachers  on  the  Board  of  Education,  since  they  feel 
that  teachers  are  in  position  to  know  the  needs  of  the 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS      121 

school  better  than  members  of  the  community  not  in  so 
close  touch  with  the  work  of  the  school. 

These  advocates  are  no  doubt  sincere  in  their  en- 
deavor to  better  the  work  of  the  schools,  but  they  lose 
sight  of  two  fundamental  facts : 

1.  The  school  is  a  community   enterprise,  provided, 
maintained  and  financed  by  the  patrons  of  the  district, 
not  by  the  teachers.    The  teachers,  principals  and  superin- 
tendent are  employes  of  the  district.     If  they  are  also 
residents  of  and  voters  in  the  district  they  are  already 
represented  on  the  "Board"  as  truly  as  any  other  citizens ; 
if   not   residents,   they   are   not   entitled   to   such   repre- 
sentation. 

2.  That  a  school,  the  same  as  any   other  business, 
must  have  a  responsible  head,  and  not  a  committee  to 
handle  executive  affairs.    Even  our  municipal  affairs  are 
now   rapidly   being  placed   under   single   administrative 
control  through  appointment  of  a  city  manager  as  execu- 
tive head. 

A  progressive  and  wise  superintendent  is  always  ready 
to  seek  advice  from  his  teachers,  and  no  doubt  he  can 
receive  valuable  help  from  them  in  solving  internal  prob- 
lems of  school  planning.  They  are  more  in  touch  with 
details  of  student  problems.  The  Board  of  Education 
also  may  secure  valuable  advice  from  teachers  at  times. 
Many  large  schools  have  teacher  organizations  and  the 
"Board"  as  well  as  the  superintendent  may  secure  valu- 
able co-operation  from  such  organizations.  The  main 
control  of  the  school,  however,  should  be  by  one  executive 
head,  an  educated  and  experienced  superintendent,  chosen 
by  the  representatives  of  the  district,  the  Board  of 
Education. 

Status  and  Tenure  of  a  Superintendent.  In  many 
states  the  legal  duties  of  a  superintendent  are  not  defined 


122      MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

or  are  very  meagerly  defined.  In  such  cases  each  district 
may  be  a  unit  in  establishing  the  status  of  the  superin- 
tendent. This  is  unfortunate,  as  there  should  be  some 
general  plan  followed  by  all  districts  within  the  state. 
A  state  law  fixing  the  status  of  a  superintendent  of  schools 
and  defining  his  rights  and  duties  would  be  welcomed 
generally  by  both  superintendents  and  school  officials. 
Heretofore  school  boards  have  had  no  conferences  with 
other  boards,  to  arrive  at  a  general  procedure,  but  in 
some  states  organizations  of  board  members  are  being 
formed  to  work  out  mutual  problems  of  this  kind.  Each 
local  board  may,  however,  and  should  work  out  a  definite 
plan,  or  rules,  showing  where  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
"Board"  ends  and  that  of  the  superintendent  begins.  This 
would  often  prevent  embarrassment  to  both  parties.  Two 
matters  in  particular  should  be  included  in  such  plan, 
first  that  individual  "Board"  members  should  not  listen 
to  complaints  against  the  school,  but  that  complainants 
should  appear  before  the  whole  "Board"  in  session ;  sec- 
ond, that  the  superintendent  should  in  general  be  elected 
before  the  teachers  are  elected,  and  that  he  should  have 
the  privilege  of  recommending  teachers  for  election.  This 
does  not  mean  that  the  "Board"  is  bound  to  elect  every- 
one recommended,  but  it  should  mean  that  no  teacher  be 
elected  to  whom  the  superintendent  seriously  objects. 
The  superintendent  is  the  one  most  responsible  for  the 
success  of  the  school,  so  it  is  only  fair  that  he  shall  have 
a  corps  of  teachers  who  will  work  in  harmony  with  him. 
The  nature  of  his  training  and  experience  renders  his 
judgment  better  in  selection  of  teachers  for  the  various 
positions  in  the  school. 

In  selection  of  a  superintendent  for  a  system  of  schools 
it  is  becoming  increasingly  evident  that  there  should 
not  be  frequent  changes  in  this  position.  This  finds 
expression  in  laws  in  some  states  permitting  a  superin- 


MANUAL  FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS       123 

tendent  to  be  employed  for  three  or  more  years  in  ad- 
vance. Where  this  is  permitted,  the  custom  of  such 
extended  employment  is  gaining  ground.  It  is  evident 
that  even  in  a  small  school  system  a  year  is  too  short  a 
time  for  a  superintendent  to  work  out  a  definite  program 
or  to  make  a  strong  impress  upon  the  school  or  the  com- 
munity. Another  growing  practice  is  to  elect  a  superin- 
tendent for  the  full  year  of  twelve  months  instead  of  for 
the  school  year  of  nine  months.  Since  the  school  is  be- 
coming a  community  center  and  the  superintendent  a 
community  leader,  the  reason  is  plain.  There  are  many 
interests  of  the  school  which  need  attention  during  the 
vacation  months.  Since  it  is  difficult  for  the  superin- 
tendent to  find,  during  this  short  period,  other. remunera- 
tive work,  it  does  not  cost  a  district  much  more  to  engage 
him  for  the  full  year. 

The  School  Year.  The  school  today  has  a  more 
crowded  curriculum  than  formerly.  This  has  led  to  scat- 
tered experiments  in  extending  the  school  year  from  nine 
months  to  practically  the  calendar  year,  or  to  forty-eight 
weeks.  Usually  in  such  cases  the  summer  months  have 
been  given  over  to  backward  pupils  and  to  others  electing 
to  take  the  work,  and  the  attendance  has  not  been  made 
compulsory.  The  increased  cost  of  school  maintenance 
the  past  few  years  has  served  temporarily  to  check  such 
experimentation.  On  the  other  hand,  in  some  districts 
there  is  an  unfortunate  tendency  to  shorten  the  school  day 
by  lengthening  the  noon  intermission  period  and  closing 
earlier  than  four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon.  Possibly  in 
some  instances  this  may  be  justifiable,  but  with  the 
crowded  curriculum  it  would  seem  to  be  more  logical  to 
lengthen  the  school  day  for  older  pupils.  This  would  en- 
able  the  pupils  to  prepare  more  of  their  work  under  school 


124      MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

supervision,  and  would  assist  in  solving  the  difficult  prob- 
lem of  home  study. 

At  present  there  are  many  demands  made  upon  the 
schools  for  closing  school  a  day  or  two  at  a  time.  Some 
of  these  are  legitimate,  of  course,  and  some  are  legally 
required.  "Boards"  are  sometimes  puzzled  to  know 
where  to  draw  the  line.  There  is  no  question,  of  course, 
concerning  the  days  schools  are  legally  required  to  be 
closed.  In  different  states  legal  holidays  are  considered 
variously.  In  a  few,  schools  are  legally  required  to  be 
closed,  in  others  the  matter  is  optional  in  each  district. 
Certain  holidays,  of  course,  should  be  observed,  such  as 
Thanksgiving,  Christmas  and  Memorial  Day,  since  these 
are  patriotic  days  or  days  of  national  significance.  Un- 
less legally  required  or  unless  the  community  celebrates 
the  occasion,  there  seems  to  be  no  good  reason  why  school 
should  be  closed  such  days  as  Washington's  birthday  or 
Lincoln's  birthday.  Usually  such  days  can  be  observed 
more  appropriately  with  schools  in  session  and  by  means 
of  some  appropriate  exercises  in  each  department.  If 
local  sentiment  or  tradition  dictates  the  closing  of  school 
such  days,  however,  the  school  may  appropriately  pre- 
pare a  community  program  for  afternoon  or  evening. 

Teachers'  institutes,  conventions,  etc.,  claim  some 
legitimate  and  legal  rights  for  closing  school,  of  course. 
Within  reasonable  limits  such  are  worth  while,  as  teachers 
get  valuable  help  from  these  meetings.  Except  as  to 
legal  requirements,  however,  there  is  as  yet  no  settled 
policy  in  these  matters.  The  closing  of  school  is  optional 
with  the  "Board,"  and  the  question  as  to  whether  teachers 
in  attendance  at  the  convention  will  receive  instruction 
and  inspiration  which  will  make  them  better  teachers  in 
the  school,  is  important  to  consider.  The  request  for  one 
or  two  days  per  year  for  teachers  to  visit  other  schools, 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS      125 

however,  is  different.  Closing  school  for  such  purposes 
is  not  customary  nor  prevalent,  and  is  of  doubtful  value. 
Owing  to  the  numerous  unavoidable  occasions  when 
school  must  be  closed  for  a  day  or  two,  a  few  districts 
have  extended  the  school  year  to  nine  and  one-half 
months,  the  last  week  being  given  over  largely  to  ex- 
aminations, school  exercises,  reports,  etc. 

Financial  Limitations.  Each  state  legally  requires 
(with  certain  exceptions),  that  every  school  district  shall 
maintain  each  year  a  minimum  number  of  months  of 
school.  It  also  fixes  a  maximum  amount  that  may  be 
levied  in  any  year  for  school  purposes.  Between  these 
two  extremes  there  is  considerable  range. 

It  is  no  doubt  unnecessary  to  caution  against  either 
penury  or  extravagance  in  financing  schools,  for  it  is  not 
presumable  that  any  school  officials  purposely  handle 
school  matters  either  way.  Yet  it  is  true  that  we  find 
some  schools  crippled  in  their  work  because  of  poor  or 
inadequate  equipment,  by  employment  of  cheap  and 
inferior  teachers,  etc.  On  the  other  hand  a  school  some- 
times spends  so  much  for  an  elaborate  school  plant  or 
for  a  profusion  of  costly  equipment  that  the  school  is 
driven  to  economize  for  a  number  of  years  on  proper 
maintenance  of  the  school.  Either  plan  shows  lack  of 
careful  thought  on  the  part  of  officials.  Perhaps  some 
inexperienced  superintendent  in  his  zeal  may  recommend 
for  a  moderate  sized  school  things  that  only  larger  sys- 
tems may  afford.  One  mistake  small  or  moderate  sized 
schools  sometimes  make  is  to  try  to  emulate  larger  school 
systems  in  school  plant,  elaborate  equipment  or  varied 
curriculum.  The  small  school  system  involves  largely 
a  different  problem  than  a  large  school  system. 

In  employment  of  qualified  and  experienced  teachers, 
however,  the  small  school  system  may  and  should  be 


126      MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

just  as 'ambitious  as  the  larger  school  system.  Strong 
teachers  are  needed  here  just  as  much  as  in  the  larger 
school ;  the  interests  of  the  children  are  just  as  sacred. 
If  eighty-five  per  cent  of  the  efficiency  of  the  school  is 
due  to  the  teachers,  then  it  is  wise  economy  to  secure 
the  best  teachers  available.  While  the  small  district 
does  not  have  the  large  property  valuation  of  the  large 
district,  neither  does  it  have  so  many  teachers  to  employ. 
In  fact  the  school  levy  in  mills  is  usually  larger  in  the 
cities  than  in  the  smaller  centers.  There  is  no  evident 
reason  why,  in  order  to  maintain  an  effective  school,  the 
smaller  school  may  not  bear  as  large  a  levy  in  mills  as 
the  large  district.  Except  in  the  matter  of  diversity  of 
high  school  courses,  the  smaller  district  may  thus  main- 
tain just  as  good  a  school  as  the  larger  district,  except 
where  the  district  is  so  small  that  there  are  not  pupils 
enough  for  fair-sized  classes. 

Suggestions  for  Providing  and  Care  of  Equipment. 
Providing  of  equipment  is  necessarily  somewhat  expen- 
sive, and  some  schools  are  therefore  limited  in  amount 
that  may  be  provided  in  a  given  year.  In  such  cases  the 
most  important  articles  should  be  first  procured  and 
other  articles  purchased  the  following  year.  In  this  way 
the  expense  can  be  equalized.  Because  equipment  is 
expensive,  care  should  be  taken  that  it  be  used  as  intended 
and  properly  protected  from  injury  when  not  in  use.  The 
following  are  a  few  suggestions  in  procuring  various  kinds 
of  equipment: 

1.  Deal  only  with  reliable  firms. 

2.  Secure  only  standard  articles. 

3.  Order  early  enough   to   avoid   delay   in   receiving 
articles.    Orders  for  use  the  first  of  the  school  year  should 
be  placed  six  months  earlier,  so  as  to  allow  firms  to  handle 
the  orders  well. 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS      127 

4.  Always  check  carefully  and  promptly  all  articles 
received,  and  at  once  notify  firms  of  shortages  or  errors 
in  shipment. 

5.  In  purchase  of  tools,  etc.,  the  "make"  should  be 
considered. 

6.  In  purchase  of  maps,  charts  and  books,  authorship 
is  important ;  accuracy  should  be  considered,  as  well  as 
date  of  publication. 

7.  Maps  and  charts  are  better  if  hand-mounted  on 
double  muslin. 

8.  Maps   should  be   of   suitable  size   for   use   in   the 
ordinary  class-room  and  should  be  such  that  they  may  be 
easily  moved  from  room  to  room. 

9.  Textbooks  in  use  should  be  occasionally  changed, 
a  few  at  a  time,  for  more  modern,  up-to-date  texts. 

10.  In  purchase  of  dictionary,  atlas  or  encyclopedia, 
authorship,  size  of  volumes,  type,  number  of  volumes, 
binding,   date   of   publication    and    general    construction 
should  be  considered. 

11.  Much  playground  equipment  of  simple  nature,  such 
as  swings,  turning  poles,  teeter-boards  and  giant  strides 
may  be  made  locally,  in  the  Manual  Training  rooms. 

12.  In  purchase  of  equipment  in  large  quantities  a  sav- 
ing may  sometimes  be  made  by  getting  quotations  from 
several  firms. 

In  proper  care  of  all  kinds  of  equipment  the  following 
suggestions  are  in  place : 

1.  In   each  room  or  department  a  careful   inventory 
should  be  taken  both  at  beginning  and  close  of  school 
year. 

2.  Proper  racks,  shelves  or  cases  for  storing  articles 
when  not  in  use  should  be  provided.     Books  and  science 
equipment  should  be  in  dry  room  and  dust-proof  cases. 

3.  Cases  should  be  properly  stored  and  locked  in  vaca- 
tion time. 


128      MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

4.  The  teacher  should  have  definite  responsibility  over 
use  of  equipment  in  her  room  or  department,  and  should 
be  held  responsible  for  unnecessary  loss  or  breakage. 

5.  Each  pupil  should  be  made  to  feel  individual  re- 
sponsibility  in  handling  equipment,  and   may   even  be 
asked   to   replace  articles   carelessly   broken  or   lost  by 
him. 

6.  All  articles  should  be  kept  clean  and  in  good  order. 
Tools  should  be  kept  sharp. 

7.  Each  teacher  should  have  a  list  of  articles  to  be 
used  by  her  room  or  department  and  know  where  to  find 
such  easily. 

8.  The  superintendent  should  have  general  oversight 
of  all  equipment  and  should  supervise  its  care  and  use. 

9.  The  superintendent  should  ask  a  report  once  or 
twice  per  year  from  each  teacher  in  regard  to  use  and 
care  of  equipment. 

10.  The  Board  of  Education  may  well  require  an  an- 
nual report  from  the  superintendent  in  the  same  way  at 
the  close  of  the  school  year. 

Problems  to  Consider.  The  school  is  a  growing  in- 
stitution, and  new  problems  constantly  arise.  A  school 
that  is  adequate  for  one  generation  or  even  one  decade 
will  prove  to  be  inadequate  for  the  next.  Although  some 
critics  may  exclaim  to  the  contrary,  the  schools  are  now 
more  efficient  on  the  whole  than  they  have  ever  been 
before.  If  space  would  permit,  proofs  might  be  brought 
to  justify  this  statement. 

There  are  several  evident  deficiencies  in  our  school 
system  today  which  were  not  so  conspicuous  a  decade 
ago.  These  are  now  receiving  serious  consideration  in 
every  state  by  both  educators  and  school  officials.  No 
attempt  is  here  made  to  point  the  way  to  their  solution, 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS      129 

but    merely    to    call    attention    to    the    most    important 
problems. 

1.  There  is  a  feeling,  first  of  all,  that  school  work 
should  be  more  vitalized,  or  motivated.     It  is  seen  that 
much  of  the  work  does  not  properly  function  in  the  daily 
lives  of  pupils. 

2.  There  is  not  the  proper  balance  between  the  so- 
called  "cultural"   subjects  and   the  vocational  subjects, 
or  rather  these  two  types  of  work  are  not  being  properly 
correlated. 

3.  The  school  work  is  over-intellectualized,  that  is, 
we  are  emphasizing  fact  material  and  mental  training  to 
the  exclusion  of  physical  and  moral  training. 

4.  Citizenship  training,  or  the  teaching  of  patriotism, 
has  not  received  sufficient  attention. 

5.  Vocational  training  should  be  coupled  some  way 
with  vocational  guidance,  so  that  the  students  may  more 
easily  find  their  true  calling,  or  occupation  in  life. 

6.  Proper  sex  hygiene  should  in  some  way  receive 
attention  by  or  through  the  schools. 

7.  We  should  teach  boys  and  girls  how  to  properly 
use  their  leisure  as  well  as  to  guide  them   into  their 
vocation. 

8.  We  should  more  thoroughly  democratize  our  school 
work,  that  is,  fit  it  more  for  use  of  the  masses  of  chil- 
dren.   More  efficient  compulsory  school  laws  would  assist 
in  this. 

9.  A  proper  way  needs  to  be  developed  to  decrease 
retardation  of  pupils,  both  those  above  normal  ability  as 
well  as  those  below  normal.    This  resolves  itself  into  a 
need  for  reclassification  of  pupils  according  to  ability  in- 
stead of  according  to  age. 

The  above  are  the  more  important  problems  now  being 
considered.  Attempts  are  being  made  to  solve  these  and 
already  some  are  on  the  way  to  evident  solution.  In 


130       MANUAL  FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

some  of  these  the  larger  schools,  those  possessing  better 
facilities,  must  lead  the  way.  Others  may  be  solved  by 
the  smaller  schools,  as  well  as  by  the  larger  system. 

Recognition  of  Service.  Since  the  office  of  member  of 
a  board  of  education  is  of  a  gratuitous  nature,  and  since  it 
involves  both  sacrifice  of  time  and  energy,  a  community 
should  certainly  appreciate  the  honest  efforts  in  such 
service.  While  "Board"  members  are  sometimes  criti- 
cised for  their  official  acts,  the  same  as  all  public  servants, 
there  are  evidences  that  the  public  in  general  does  appre- 
ciate such  service.  The  compensation  comes  through 
enriched  experience,  through  increased  interest  in  child 
welfare,  and  in  a  feeling  of  service  rendered.  The  author 
knows  one  ex-"Board"  member,  a  busy  professional  man. 
who  now  rejoices  that  for  seventeen  years  in  succession 
he  assisted  officially  in  building  up  a  system  of  schools, 
nine  of  those  years  as  President  of  the  Board  of  Educa- 
tion. Through  this  service  he  extended  his  acquaintance 
from  his  clientele  to  the  whole  community,  gained  some 
lasting  friends,  received  the  respect  of  the  student  body 
and  enlarged  his  knowledge  of  local,  state  and  national 
educational  affairs.  This  is  to  him  a  rich  legacy  in  his 
later  years.  Someone  has  said  that  "The  sweetest  serv- 
ice we  render  is  that  for  which  we  are  not  paid."  The 
service  of  a  school  official,  if  rendered  through  honest 
effort,  although  possibly  fraught  with  many  errors,  is  a 
noble  service.  Such  officials  have  the  deep-rooted  respect 
of  the  community,  and  this  respect  is  enduring.  Is  it  not 
therefore  worth  the  sacrifice  of  time  and  energy,  es- 
pecially when  it  is  realized  that  the  service  rendered  helps 
the  boys  and  girls  of  the  community? 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS       131 

CHAPTER  XIV 
General  Consideration 

Before  concluding  this  subject  a  few  miscellaneous 
matters  should  claim  our  attention,  matters  of  a  general 
nature  which  do  not  group  themselves  readily  under  the 
preceding  chapters. 

Tenure  of  Office.  A  superintendent  is  often  puzzled 
to  know  how  long  he  shall  stay  in  one  position.  Of 
course,  if  he  is  not  successful  or  is  unsatisfactory  to  the 
community  he  does  not  need  to  decide  that  point;  it  will 
be  decided  for  him.  If  he  is  giving  satisfaction,  however, 
which  is  more  often  the  case,  he  is  especially  ambitious 
for  a  large  school  system,  looking  for  "More  worlds  to 
conquer".  This  is  a  worthy  ambition,  but  is  apt  to  lead 
the  young  superintendent  to  too  frequent  changes  in 
position  and  to  the  habit  of  not  seeing  through  a  program 
he  outlines  in  a  school.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  no  con- 
structive program  of  merit  can  show  results  in  one  year. 
The  plan  of  changing  schools  each  year  is  bad  for  the 
school  and  just  as  bad  for  the  superintendent.  The  tenure 
of  the  position  depends,  of  course,  on  the  size  of  the 
school  system,  the  larger  school  system  requiring  more 
time  to  carry  through  a  program  than  the  smaller  sys- 
tem. In  the  small  system  of  schools,  employing  from 
six  to  ten  teachers,  the  good  of  the  school,  as  well  as 
the  future  good  of  the  superintendent  would  seem  to 
require  a  tenure  of  three  to  five  years,  in  a  larger  system 
a  somewhat  longer  tenure.  Of  course  a  longer  tenure  is 
better  for  the  school. 

Shall  a  Superintendent  Instruct,  and  in  What 
Branches?  In  a  small  system  of  schools  it  is  usually  nee- 


132      MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

essary  that  a  superintendent  teach  several  subjects.  He 
cannot  always  choose  the  subjects  he  shall  teach,  for 
sometimes  he  must  take  charge  of  those  subjects  for 
which  no  other  teachers  are  prepared.  In  the  final  an- 
alysis this  is  often  a  benefit  to  the  superintendent,  al- 
though it  may  not  always  be  best  for  the  classes.  Many 
experienced  superintendents  claim  that  the  teaching  of 
the  various  subjects  in  their  early  career  has  enabled  them 
better  to  keep  in  touch  with  and  supervise  the  high 
school  work  later.  Owing  to  the  many  demands  on  the 
time  of  a  superintendent,  it  is  usually  better  for  him  to 
teach  subjects  without  laboratory  periods  and  without 
many  papers  to  examine.  Many  superintendents  of 
large  school  systems  prefer  to  teach  one  or  two  subjects 
in  the  high  school,  in  order  that  they  may  thus  become 
better  acquainted  with  the  student  body.  Some  also 
select  Ninth  grade  subjects  so  they  may  become  ac- 
quainted with  students  as  soon  as  they  enter  high  school. 

Oral  Work  vs.  Written  Work.  The  relative  value  of 
oral  work  and  written  work  sometimes  comes  in  for  con- 
sideration. Some  teachers  favor  much  written  work, 
making  of  booklets,  writing  of  compositions,  etc.  This 
gives  definiteness  to  the  wrork  and  gives  the  teacher  con- 
crete evidence  of  the  quality  and  quantity  of  the  pupil's 
work.  It  should  not  be  wholly  depended  upon,  however, 
as  the  pupil  may  have  received  help  in  preparing  it.  Much 
oral  work  should  balance  this  as  a  test  of  the  pupil's 
ability  and  preparation.  Again,  oral  work  has  a  value 
of  its  own  in  training  in  expression  and  development  of 
confidence.  English  teachers  are  turning  more  to  oral 
work.  Part  of  the  Spelling  work,  no  doubt,  should  be 
oral,  for  best  results.  Much  oral  demonstration  work  is 
valuable.  The  two  forms  of  work  should  be  well  bal- 
anced in  every  year  of  the  school. 


MANUAL  FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS       133 

Methods  of  Promotion.  In  general,  the  elementary 
pupils  are  promoted  by  grades ;  that  is,  when  all  the  sub- 
jects are  completed,  at  a  certain  minimum  percentage,  in  a 
certain  grade,  the  pupil  is  entitled  to  enter  the  next  grade. 
This  is  by  yearly  promotions  in  the  smaller  school  sys- 
tem. If  a  pupil  fails  of  reaching  the  minimum  percentage 
in  but  one  subject,  he  must  repeat  the  whole  year's  work. 
This  is  a  discouragement  to  the  pupil,  creates  a  group  of 
"retarded  pupils"  in  each  grade  and  adds  to  the  expendi- 
ture of  maintaining  the  school.  To  remedy  this,  some 
schools  now  base  promotions  on  the  successful  comple- 
tion of  only  certain  major  subjects  in  each  grade;  others 
base  it  on  a  successful  percentage  of  a  certain  proportion 
of  the  subjects,  for  instance,  four  subjects  of  the  five 
studied  or  five  of  the  six  studied.  Many  schools  base 
promotions  in  the  Primary  department  on  general  fit- 
ness rather  than  on  percentages.  Many  superintendents 
promote  a  pupil  every  second  year  whether  he  can  "make 
his  grade,"  or  not.  This  is  on  the  assumption  that  it  is 
better  for  both  pupil  and  the  school  that  the  pupil  be 
kept  with  other  pupils  somewhat  near  his  age.  There 
is  a  growing  tendency  to  base  promotion  on  individual 
merit,  and  to  promote  a  pupil  any  time  during  the  year 
that  he  is  thought  capable  of  doing  the  next  grade  work. 
In  the  high  school  the  promotion  matter  is  simple,  as 
each  student  is  given  credit  for  a  year's  work  or  a  half 
year's  work  in  a  given  subject.  Seventy-five  per  cent  is 
the  usual  passing  mark  in  both  grades  and  high  school. 

Intelligence  tests  are  used  in  some  schools  as  a  basis 
for  promoting  "retarded"  pupils  and  exceptionally  pre- 
cocious pupils.  The  method  of  applying  of  this  test 
should  be  thoroughly  understood  before  being  used. 

The  Place  of  Special  Tests.  In  recent  years  many 
schools  have  been  using  special  speed,  accuracy  and  abil- 


134      MANUAL  FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

ity  tests  prepared  for  such  purposes  by  experts  in  the  field 
of  education.  These  are  valuable  and  comparatively  easy 
to  handle.  They  are  an  incentive  to  the  pupils,  a  spur 
to  the  teacher  and  constitute  a  plan  to  compare  results 
with  those  of  other  school  systems.  The  direct  educa- 
tional value  of  such  tests  is  not  so  great  as  the  indirect 
value.  They  should  not  be  allowed,  therefore,  to  consume 
too  much  time  of  the  school. 

School  Surveys.  These  are  rather  for  the  larger  sys- 
tem of  schools  and  are  elaborate  in  nature.  For  the  small 
system  they  are  impractical.  However,  the  superintend- 
ent of  a  small  school  can  receive  value  by  studying  the 
report  of  the  survey  of  some  city  system.  He  can  get 
therefrom  the  relative  expenditure  of  different  factors  of 
the  school.  He  can  thus  make  a  survey  of  his  own  sys- 
tem and  compare  results.  The  value  of  any  survey  is  to 
detect  waste,  extravagance  and  inefficiency  that  may 
exist  in  some  departments  of  the  school. 

What  a  Superintendent  Should  Know  About  His 
School  and  Community.  Often  gross  ignorance  is  found 
on  the  part  of  a  superintendent  regarding  important  mat- 
ters. In  such  cases,  a  superintendent  is  not  familiar  with 
his  course  of  study,  perhaps,  or  is  ignorant  of  the  texts 
in  use  in  his  school.  He  may  not  know  even  the  approx- 
imate enrollment  in  grades  or  high  school.  Once  the 
author  visited  a  superintendent  of  a  school  of  ten  teach- 
ers. Two  buildings  were  in  use,  a  Primary  building  and 
a  combination  building  of  grades  and  high  school.  The 
two  buildings  stood  on  separate  lots,  perhaps  two  hun- 
dred feet  apart.  On  inquiry,  the  superintendent,  although 
he  had  been  in  charge  of  the  schools  all  year,  could  not 
tell  whether  the  Primary  building  contained  inside  toilets. 


MANUAL  FOR   SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS       135 

The  above  are  a  few  illustrations  of  careless  ignorance. 
A  live  superintendent  should  know  more  about  his  school 
than  any  other  person  does.  He  should  know  how  each 
department  is  functioning;  he  should  know  which  teach- 
ers are  doing  efficient  work,  and  should  seek  to  assist 
those  who  are  not. 

Besides  knowing  the  inside  workings  of  his  school  he 
should  also  know  some  outside  matters,  such,  as  salaries 
paid,  the  school  levy,  the  financial  limitations  of  the  dis- 
trict, etc.  He  should  know  the  rules  of  the  school  and 
should  be  familiar  with  the  school  laws  of  his  state,  and 
the  further  regulations  of  the  State  Department  of  Public 
Instruction. 

To  be  at  his  best,  also,  the  superintendent  should 
know  his  community.  He  should  seek  personal  acquaint- 
ance with  the  city  officials  and  other  leading  citizens.  If 
the  town  supports  a  commercial  organization  he  should 
ally  himself  with  it  in  an  active  way.  A  superintendent 
can  serve  his  school  best  who  is  in  touch  with  community 
life.  To  use  the  words  of  another,  "the  best  superin- 
tendent is  the  one  who  is  'on  the  job'  every  minute." 

Home  Study.  A  difficult  task  usually  is  the  securing, 
on  the  part  of  students,  adequate  home  study.  In  the 
High  School  and  the  Grammar  department  it  is  legiti- 
mate to  require  regular  evening  home  study  by  students 
who  cannot  prepare  all  their  work  in  school.  It  is  doubt- 
ful if  pupils  below  the  Grammar  department  should  be 
required  to  do  home  study. 

Necessary  as  home  study  work  seems  to  be  in  the 
upper  departments  of  the  school,  there  will  always  be 
difficulty  in  securing  it  from  all  students,  owing  to  home 
conditions.  The  tendency  to  shorten  the  school  day, 
therefore,  is  a  wrong  tendency.  If  it  were  possible  to 
lengthen  the  school  day  sufficiently  for  all  preparations 


136      MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

to  be  made  in  the  school  room,  under  supervision  of  the 
instructors,  it  would  seem  more  logical.  Supervised 
study  periods  and  intensive  study  in  the  school  will  help 
in  the  solution. 

Financial  Plan.  As  a  business,  the  school  organiza- 
tion is  peculiar.  The  expense  budget,  consisting  of  inter- 
est on  value  of  plant,  overhead  and  operating  expense  is 
concrete,  but  the  returns  on  the  product  are  abstract  and 
largely  indefinite.  There  is  no  income  from  the  sale 
of  the  product.  But,  neither  is  the  school  philanthropic 
in  its  nature,  as  is  a  church.  It  is  more  of  a  government 
institution,  like  a  state,  supported  by  taxation.  In  a  way 
this  is  an  advantage,  since  the  income  is  definitely  fixed 
and  perfectly  reliable.  On  the  other  hand,  it  endangers 
efficient  management.  How  is  a  School  Board  or  a 
superintendent  to  know  whether  or  not  the  school  is  a 
financial  success?  There  is  no  annual  inventory  taken 
and  no  debit  and  credit  columns,  no  gain  and  loss  sheets. 
In  a  way  the  financing  of  a  school  is  apt  to  be  haphazard. 
School  officers  work  gratuitously  and  have  their  own 
business  enterprises  to  care  for,  so  cannot  give  school 
finances  the  care  they  should  have.  The  superintendent 
is  engaged  in  directing  educational  policies  rather  than 
in  studying  school  finances.  Therefore,  school  business 
is  not  only  haphazard,  but  neglected.  In  such  a  way  there 
must  be  financial  waste,  as  in  most  cases  there  is. 

While  the  above  is  the  present  condition,  there  is  a 
remedy.  Large  districts  may  employ  a  paid  secretary  to 
handle  finances,  but  small  districts  must  depend  more  on 
the  superintendent.  A  successful  superintendent  needs 
some  training  in  School  finance,  and  training  schools 
should  provide  such.  The  budget  system  should  be 
understood  and  applied.  Monthly  financial  reports  may 
be  presented  to  the  "Board",  and  also  an  annual  report. 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS       137 

Data  may  be  gathered  from  schools  in  regard  to  com- 
parative expenditures  for  different  items.  The  following 
table  is  suggestive: 

1.  Annual  expenditure  for  teachers. 

2.  Annual  expenditure  for  buildings  and  grounds  (in- 
cluding regular  annual  payment  on  bonds  and  interest 
on  bonds). 

3.  Annual  expenditure  for  permanent  equipment. 

4.  Annual  expenditure  for  current  supplies. 

5.  Annual  expenditure  for  janitor  service  and  other 
service,    on    buildings    and    grounds,    including    in- 
surance. 

6.  Annual  expenditure  for  lights,  water  and  telephone. 

7.  Annual  expenditure  for  fuel. 

8.  Annual  expenditure  for  service  of  secretary,  treas- 
urer and  for  election  expenses. 

9.  Average  enrollment  in 

(a)  Primary  Department 

(b)  Intermediate  Department 

(c)  Grammar  Department 

(d)  High  School  Department. 

10.  Total  teacher  hire  for 

(a)  Primary  Department 

(b)  Intermediate  Department 

(c)  Grammar  Department 

(d)  High  School  Department. 

11.  Number  of  pupils  studying  special  subjects  and 
teachers  employed  for  each. 

(a)  Home  Economics 

(b)  Manual  Training 

(c)  Agriculture 

(d)  Drawing 

(e)  Penmanship 

(f)  Vocal  Music 

(g)  Foreign  Language. 


138       MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

12.  Average  cost  of  instruction  per  pupil  in  each  de- 
partment and  each  grade. 

13.  Average  cost  of  instruction  per  subject  in   high 
school  and  for  special  subjects. 

14.  Percentage  of  school  levy  compared  to  possible 
total  levy.     How  does  the  levy  compare  with  other 
similar  districts? 

By  questionnaire  sent  out,  a  superintendent  may  se- 
cure data  from  about  twenty  schools  for  comparison  with 
the  same  data  of  his  own  school.  He  can  thus  ascertain 
whether  his  own  school  is  above  or  below  the  average  on 
any  or  all  items.  For  best  results  he  should  select  schools 
somewhat  near  the  size  of  his  own  school,  and  scattered 
in  different  parts  of  the  state.  If  the  school  be  a  rural 
consolidated  school,  questions  may  be  added  in  reference 
to  transportation  of  pupils,  etc.  By  this  means  it  will 
be  possible  for  a  superintendent  to  secure  a  measuring 
stick  for  financing  his  own  school.  This  compared  with 
the  financial  limitations  of  his  own  district  in  school  taxa- 
tion will  assist  him  to  work  out  a  safe  financial  plan  for 
his  school. 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS       139 

CHAPTER  XV 
A  Forward  Look 

Retrospect.  School  organization  and  administration 
has  been  a  growth,  and  a  rapid  growth.  A  generation  ago 
schools  were,  except  in  the  city,  simple  in  nature  and  of  a 
loose  organization.  A  school  then  could  not,  in  other 
words,  be  called  a  "system"  of  schools,  but  each  room  or 
grade  was  largely  independent  of  all  the  other  rooms  or 
grades.  The  nominal  head  of  the  school,  usually  called 
"the  principal,"  was  a  teacher  of  the  most  advanced  de- 
partment and  spent  practically  all  his  time  in  instruction. 
Before  and  after  school  hours  he  was  sometimes  engaged 
in  threshing  recalcitrant  pupils  sent  to  him  from  various 
rooms,  but  this  was  about  the  extent  of  his  duties,  either 
as  administrator  or  supervisor.  Not  always  was  there 
even  a  regular  course  of  study,  a  teacher  being  allowed 
to  teach  what  she  desired  and  whatever  she  thought  her 
pupils  could  successfully  pursue. 

Developing  a  System.  During  the  past  thirty  years 
there  has  been  a  rapid  development  of  schools  into  a 
system.  High  schools  have  multiplied  until  every  village 
has  a  high  school  or  is  ambitious  to  get  one.  Even  rural 
communities  are  consolidating  and  establishing  high 
schools.  The  establishing  of  a  high  school  necessitates 
organization  and  a  course  of  study  in  the  grades.  Co- 
ordination of  the  high  school  and  the  elementary  school 
thus  becomes  necessary.  This  calls  for  careful  planning 
and  some  supervision  of  the  work.  Naturally  the  duty 
of  arranging  the  course  and  supervising  the  work  falls 
to  the  head  teacher  of  the  school,  the  teacher  of  the 
highest  grades.  He  is  given  chief  charge  and  responsi- 
bility and  takes  on  some  supervisory  work,  although  in 


140      MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

the  small  school  system  he  is  still  more  instructor  than 
supervisor. 

There  has  come  also  in  this  period  a  multiplicity  of 
subjects  to  be  taught.  Many  subjects  have  been  legis- 
lated into  the  school,  and  are  therefore  required.  The 
adding  of  special  subjects  has  called  for  special  teachers 
for  such  subjects,  or  in  the  larger  school  systems  special 
supervisors.  All  this  adds  to  the  administrative  work  of 
some  one,  the  "principal"  of  the  school.  Because  of  his 
administrative  work  he  takes  the  title,  "superintendent". 
While  he  may  still  be  instructor  for  several  subjects,  his 
chief  duty  is  as  administrator  and  supervisor.  The  vari- 
ous organizations  within  the  school  need  direction,  and 
this  naturally  falls  to  the  superintendent. 

The  Evolution  of  the  "Superintendent":  The  above 
paragraph  suggests  what  the  superintendent  has  been 
and  where  he  comes  from.  He  has  come  directly  from 
the  ranks  of  the  teacher,  usually  from  the  teacher  of  the 
highest  department  of  the  particular  school.  He  has 
developed  by  taking  over  functions  that  in  the  small 
school  system  the  Board  of  Education  was  wont  to  as- 
sume, and  by  taking  on  added  duties  accruing  to  the 
school  as  it  became  more  complex.  The  Board  of  Edu- 
cation in  the  small  village  today  assumes  duties  which 
the  "Board"  in  a  larger  system  delegates  to  the  super- 
intendent, such  as  the  selection  of  teachers.  In  some 
small  schools  even  yet  the  superintendent  is  not  asked 
to  attend  regular  meetings  of  the  Board  of  Education, 
as  he  should  be,  although  in  the  large  system  he  is  always 
required  to  attend. 

Importance  of  the  Superintendency.  The  old  saying 
"As  is  the  teacher,  so  is  the  school,"  has  been  changed  to, 
"As  is  the  superintendent,  so  is  the  school."  In  other 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS       141 

words,  the  success  of  the  school  depends  largely  on  the 
ability  and  the  faithfulness  of  the  superintendent.  The 
success  of  an  individual  teacher  depends  much  on  the 
assistance  and  direction  rendered  by  the  superintendent. 
Young  teachers  may  be  trained  in  service  by  the  super- 
intendent to  become  mediocre  teachers  or  highly  suc- 
cessful, while  lack  of  proper  supervision  may  render  some 
teachers  dismal  failures.  Even  the  attitude  of  pupils  and 
students  and  their  success  in  their  work  may  depend  upon 
their  personal  relations  to  the  superintendent. 

It  is  generally  considered  that  a  strong,  experienced 
superintendent  is  needed  in  a  large  school  system,  but 
that  almost  any  teacher  with  proper  educational  prepara- 
tion for  teaching  can  succeed  as  superintendent  of  a 
small  school  system.  This  is  partly  a  fallacy.  While  it 
is  true  that  many  superintendents  of  larger  schools  have 
received  their  training  for  such  position  while  engaged  as 
superintendent  of  smaller  school  systems,  the  small  sys- 
tem needs  a  capable  superintendent.  The  school  here  is 
not  so  well  organized  and  therefore  needs  organizing 
ability  in  the  superintendent.  There  are  many  adminis- 
trative and  supervisory  problems  in  the  small  system 
of  schools  which  in  the  larger  system  may  be  turned  over 
to  principals  and  supervisors.  The  small  school  there- 
fore needs  a  competent  superintendent  fully  as  much  as 
does  the  larger  school,  although  not  necessarily  one  so 
experienced.  Teachers  in  small  school  systems  are  not 
usually  so  well  qualified  nor  so  experienced  as  those  in 
larger  ones,  hence  the  more  need  of  assistance  from  a 
capable  superintendent. 

Need  of  Training.  Mention  has  previously  been  made 
of  the  need  on  the  part  of  a  prospective  superintendent 
of  special  training  in  Administration  and  Supervision, 

Our  universities  and  some  of  our  colleges  are  establish- 


142      MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

ing  courses  for  just  this  purpose,  and  it  is  now  possible 
for  a  young  man  or  a  young  woman  who  desires  to  make 
school  administration  a  life  profession  to  prepare  for  this 
directly  instead  of  passing  through  a  long  experimental 
period  of  teaching,  etc. 

The  Prospect.  The  rapid  growth  of  school  systems 
in  villages  and  the  numerous  consolidations  of  rural 
school  districts  into  organized  graded  school  systems 
have  added  to  the  demand  for  competent  superintendents. 

The  recent  remarkable  increase  in  salary  for  superin- 
tendent indicates  that  Boards  of  Education  are  appreci- 
ating more  his  importance.  The  tendency  to  longer  terms 
of  office  is  another  good  indication.  A  number  of  the 
better  schools  now  employ  a  superintendent  for  a  term 
of  three  years  or  more  and  pay  him  on  the  twelve-months 
basis.  The  outlook  for  professionalism  in  the  superin- 
tendency  and  also  in  the  high  school  principalship  is 
encouraging.  More  superintendents  are  entering  the  pro- 
fession as  a  life  work. 

The  New  Organization.  The  coming  superintendent 
must  be  an  organizer,  as  well  as  an  administrator  and  a 
supervisor ;  he  must  have  business  ability.  The  criticism 
of  our  present  school  system  is  that  it  is  autocratic  and 
not  flexible.  The  superintendent  under  the  present  sys- 
tem is  accused  of  commanding  his  teachers  and  "bossing" 
the  pupils.  He  is  sometimes  said  to  be  arbitrary  in  deal- 
ing with  patrons.  The  new  school  system  must  therefore 
be  on  a  different  basis.  Teachers  are  demanding,  and 
rightfully  so,  more  voice  in  directing  the  affairs  of  the 
school,  in  arranging  the  curriculum,  in  choosing  texts 
and  material  and  directing  the  general  policy  of  the 
school.  Students  in  the  high  school  are  clamoring  for 
some  part  in  direction  of  the  high  school.  Student  gov- 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS       143 

ernment  and  student  co-operation  in  government  are 
being  tried  out  by  isolated  schools.  These  movements 
are  still  in  the  experimental  stage,  but  show  the  trend 
in  local  demand.  Parent  and  Teacher  organizations  in 
many  places  are  taking  hold  of  school  problems.  The 
wise  superintendent  will  recognize  this  trend  and  adjust 
his  school  organization  accordingly.  This  does  not  mean 
that  he  shall  try  every  theory  nor  adopt  every  fad  in 
school  organization.  His  plan  should  be  to  adapt  rather 
than  to  adopt. 

With  this  demand  for  student  and  teacher  participa- 
tion in  school  government,  it  should  be  remembered  that 
it  ought  to  affect  the  legislative  side  rather  than  the 
executive  or  the  judicial  side.  In  school  government  as 
well  as  in  political  government  there  should  be  one 
responsible  administrative  head.  Teacher  councils  and 
student  councils  may  have  a  legitimate  place,  but  to 
carry  out  the  decisions  of  the  council  the  superintendency 
should  function.  It  should  be  remembered,  too,  that 
students  and  even  some  young  teachers  lack  experience 
and  mature  judgment  to  handle  important  matters.  Co- 
operative student  government  is  rather  for  the  purpose 
of  training  than  for  assistance  in  the  process  of  admin- 
istration, and  as  such  has  an  important  place  in  the 
scheme  of  the  school. 

Community  Leadership.  In  another  chapter  brief 
mention  has  been  made  of  social  center  activities.  On 
the  part  of  communities  there  is  a  constantly  growing 
demand  that  the  public  school  assume  social  leadership. 
It  is  recognized  that  the  school  is  the  best  agency  for 
community  center  activities,  and  that  the  superintendent 
and  his  teachers  are  naturally,  by  virtue  of  their  position, 
community  leaders.  Some  boards  of  education  require 
that  an  applicant  for  the  position  of  superintendent  show 


144      MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS 

his  ability  and  willingness  to  take  direction  of  community 
matters  in  this  way.  In  small  towns  and  in  rural  con- 
solidated districts  this  is  especially  important.  The 
school  of  the  future  is  destined  to  become  a  stronger 
factor  in  the  community  life,  whether  located  in  a  rural 
community,  a  town  or  city. 

Community  Participation  in  Education.  The  school 
of  the  past  has  been  isolated.  Usually  in  a  town  the  build- 
ing and  grounds  have  occupied  a  place  on  the  outskirts. 
Pupils  were  therefore  sent  out  of  the  town  proper  to 
do  their  school  work.  The  text-book  was  the  basis  of 
their  education.  The  school  was  not  vitally  connected 
with  the  stirring  life  of  the  community.  Pupils  were 
ignorant  of  many  important  things  in  their  own  com- 
munity ;  their  daily  education  was  not  connected  up  with 
illustrative  material  close  at  hand.  In  Economics,  for 
instance,  the  subject  of  Division  of  Labor  was  taught 
from  a  text,  when  a  local  industry  \vould  provide  a  con- 
crete example.  Rules  of  health  were  learned  from  a  text 
instead  of  local  sanitation  being  considered  first  hand. 
In  other  words,  local  factors  in  education  were  ignored 
by  the  school. 

This  is  now  being  changed.  The  school  is  coming 
to  see  the  value  of  local  educational  factors  and  the  com- 
munity is  awakening  to  its  responsibility  in  education. 
Better  co-operation  is  developing.  Clean-up  days  are 
instituted  whereby  the  pupils  may  have  a  part  in  render- 
ing the  community  more  sanitary ;  instead  of  merely  read- 
ing "The  Village  Blacksmith",  pupils  now  visit  with  the 
teacher  a  local  blacksmith  shop ;  Geography  classes  make 
field  trips,  and  Agriculture  classes  spray  fruit  trees  in 
the  neighborhood.  Local  talent  in  business  and  society 
give  talks  before  bodies  of  students.  The  school  is  called 
upon  to  participate  in  local  celebrations,  etc.  At  the  same 


MANUAL  FOR  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATORS      145 

time,  by  night  classes,  the  school  is  giving  back  to  the 
homes  some  educational  opportunities.  Demonstrations 
in  Home  Economics,  etc.,  are  offered  for  the  benefit  of 
mothers  and  working  girls. 

All  this  has  much  promise  in  betterment  of  the  school 
and  betterment  of  the  community  life.  At  the  same  time 
it  adds  to  the  responsibility  of  the  teacher,  the  principal 
and  the  superintendent,  and  dignifies  their  work.  The 
trend  toward  community  co-operation  is  doing  much  to 
professionalize  the  occupation  of  teaching,  for  all  profes- 
sions are  based  on  service  to  the  community.  This  exalts 
the  position  of  the  superintendent  and  honors  the  office 
of  the  members  of  the  Board  of  Education.  To  accomp- 
lish its  best  results  the  school  must  in  its  operation  be 
placed  more  on  a  business  basis  and  in  its  purpose  be 
placed  more  on  a  professional  basis. 


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